Breeding and Piglet Rearing

Artificial Insemination

Instead of acquiring replacement animals, a closed-herd policy may be implemented. Implementing artificial insemination into a sow herd is the simplest way to introduce new DNA. In contrast, artificial insemination may give rise to biosecurity concerns. A variety of potential pathogens, including Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus and Porcine Circovirus, have been identified in boar sperm. The majority of boar breeders conduct routine PRRSV testing on AI boar sperm and only import negative boars that have never been exposed to the virus.

In general, external courier services or boar breeder couriers are utilised to deliver sperm to the farm. Semen that is to be transported via an external conveyance is typically enclosed in a double-boxed, temperature-controlled (17.2 °C) Styrofoam container that has been sealed. Boar stud conveyance services typically entail the transportation of sperm in paper or plastic containers that are stored in a refrigerator throughout the journey. Upon the courier’s arrival at the farm, the semen sachets are extracted and promptly transferred to a semen refrigerator maintained at a temperature of 17.2 °C. The area of the farm designated as the “dirty” contains the semen refrigerator.

It is necessary to store all semen packaging (bags, Styrofoam coolers, and so forth) outside the farm. Doar the sperm ought to be permitted to pass through the dean-dirty barrier. While the source of the sperm might not contain economically critical pathogens such as the PRRS virus, it is still possible that other pathogens are present. Additionally, a contaminated refrigerator could introduce undesired bacteria or virus agents from the porcine stud.

Similarly, it is imprudent for the courier to access the farm due to the uncharted nature of their route and their lack of awareness regarding potential pathogens that might be present at alternative drop-off locations. Preferably, a designated area situated beyond the dean-dirty barrier is assigned for drop-off. Off-site, at the producer’s residence, or another suitable location. When the latter occurs, the producer might transfer the sperm to the farm via a shuttle chiller. Before entering the pig production facility, transfer the quantities of sperm from the shuttle cooler to a suitable container, such as a Styrofoam cooler, by traversing the dean-dirty barrier. Place the quantities of semen into the farm’s semen refrigerator following a shower.

Frequently, when semen is transported directly from the stud by courier, it is stored in a dirty side semen refrigerator where it remains after business hours. This may once more be occurring off-site. Given the circumstances, it is advisable to double-bag the sperm to ensure that any potential contamination that may arise en route to the courier is concentrated in the outer bag. The outer bag is frequently composed of paper, while the semen is contained within a plastic bag that is fastened shut by the boar stallion employee responsible for packaging the semen for shipment. Before depositing the two-bag delivery containing the sperm in the refrigerator, the courier will remove it from the vehicle cooler. After removing the inner container, the second stage is to place it in the refrigerator. After being returned to the vehicle, the outer bag is emptied into a garbage bag and deposited at a location designated for off-site waste collection. It is not acceptable to return this container to the stud or leave it at the delivery location. When the semen is required on the farm, personnel simply contact the container and discard it across the dean-dirty barrier. The disposal of this container occurs outside the farm. Certain farms apply disinfectant to all supplies that pass through the dean-dirty barrier, including sperm containers.

Artificial insemination of sows

 

Nursery Equipment and Facilities

A. Feeding Facilities and Equipment

Pork enterprises incur a substantial financial burden in the form of feeding costs, which can exceed 65% of the overall cost of commercial pig production. Pigs necessitate feed to fulfil their physiological requirements for sustenance, development, and procreation. The feed conversion rate, or feed efficiency, guarantees this. Their types and configurations influence the feed efficiency of pig feeders.

The influence of feed trough service on pig performance has become evident to pig producers due to advancements and adjustments in pig lodging and production techniques. According to European research, a pig feeder trough of an irrational size or design can inhibit the daily feed consumption of pigs by 20%, consequently impeding their development rate. When designing and positioning a pig feeder trough, consideration should be given to ensuring that pigs can easily and ordinarily ingest their food.

The quantity and positioning of pig feeding basins are dictated by the feeding trough’s capacity and the pig growth rate.

Pig trough feeding space

• When employing automatic feeders, the pig feed trough space should have a width of 0.3 metres per sow;
• When rearing pigs in groups, the feed trough space should have a width of 0.6 metres per pig.

Conditions of pig growth

• In the early phases of the incubation period, no more than two calves weighing between 5.5 and 13.5 kg should be housed per feeding trough.
• During the incubation period, no more than four piglets weighing 13.5 to 23 kg should be housed per feeding receptacle.
• There should be a maximum of four piglets per feed trough for pigs weighing between 23 and 34 kilogrammes during the incubation period.
• During the growing-finishing period, there should be no more than five or six pigs per feed trough for pigs weighing between 34 and 100 kilogrammes.

Furthermore, feeding mode is an additional determinant of feeding receptacle quantity. When pigs are in restricted feeding mode, they ingest food in rows along the feed trough. However, when they are in self-feeding mode, they arbitrarily consume food without any discernible pattern, which requires the addition of additional feeding receptacles.

The positioning of the pig feeder trough significantly affects the feeding efficacy of the piglets. When installing a pig feeding receptacle, the location should be such as to facilitate feed intake. Allowing pigs to graze from all sides, the disc-shaped feeder trough may be positioned in the centre of the pig barns; alternatively, several straight-shaped feeder troughs may be arranged in succession or in the central region. In the confined pig house, the feeder receptacle should not be too near the piglets’ sleeping area.

 

Stages of Development

A. The Cycle of a Market Pig’s Life

An average market pig has twenty-five to twenty-eight weeks, or six to seven months, to reach maturity. They are typically raised from an initial weight of 0.9 to 1.4 kg to a maximum market weight of 128 kg.

 

B. Gestation

114 days comprise this interval (3 months, 3 weeks, and 3 days).

• Gestation and breeding of gilts (female piglets) occur between 170 and 220 days of age.
• Gilts are designated as sows after the delivery of their initial litter.
• Pregnancy continues for approximately 114 days, or three months, three weeks, and three days.
• The average birth weight of piglets is between 0.9 and 1.4 kg.

 

B. Birth to Suckling (Farrowing)

• This phase lasts for 21 days or three weeks.
  When sows and gilts are of reproductive age, they are transferred to a farrowing barn (farrow).
• In general, a litter of 12 to 13 piglets will be produced by a sow or gilt.
• Piglets are weaned at approximately 21 days of age, following the period of nursing by sows.
• Weaned piglets range in weight from 5 to 6.8 kg.

It is essential to remove any mucous from the neonatal piglets’ mouths and noses. When time permits, the navel cord may be dipped, and needle teeth may be cut if required, before the infant is confined in the creep area or placed in a heated bassinet to dry. Alternatively, the larger piglets could be separated for two hours after being allowed to suckle for one hour. Since large piglets can ingest over 100 ml of colostrum within the initial hour, a brief colostrum deprivation is improbable to cause them damage.

Pigs that are tiny or weakened should be assisted to survive. Before entering the heated creep area, they may be granted access to numerous teats and physically restrained to the sow. The primary cause of piglet mortality is malnutrition. Put simply, apart from stillbirths, the most significant issue pertains to infants that perish as a result of being unable to lactate due to inadequate viability or low birth weight.

The survival of newborns is significantly influenced by their birth weights. Although it is common for pre-weaning mortality rates to range from 8 to 10%, 40% of these losses still transpire in piglets that are delivered weighing below 1.0 kg. The most susceptible are these minuscule newborns. Passive immunity conferred by colostrum is critical for the development of piglets, as antibody transfer across the placenta is minimal before birth.

Piglets must be born in a warm environment where they can conserve their meagre energy reserves, rapidly obtain access to the sow, and safely suckle to survive.

The leading causes of death among neonatal piglets in the first week of life are chilling and compression, which can account for as much as 20% of such cases. Extremely vulnerable to frigid and moist conditions are piglets. It possesses a thin epidermis, little body fat and fur, and a low mass in relation to its body surface area. It has a limited capacity for temperature regulation, and its regulatory system does not reach maturity until the piglet reaches three weeks of age.

Pigs typically maintain body temperatures between 38 and 40 degrees Celsius. Within the first thirty minutes of life, the temperature of a neonatal piglet may decline by 1oC or more, depending on environmental conditions. Under ideal conditions, this temperature decline is recouped within twenty-four to forty-eight hours.

Furthermore, piglets are prematurely weaned and have a restricted quantity of readily accessible energy; therefore, they require early breastfeeding to sustain sufficient blood sugar levels. If these conditions are not upheld, piglets may enter a coma and ultimately die. Depletion of these reserves reduces the likelihood that they will survive in the cold.

It is determined that the minimum critical temperature for calves that weigh five kilogrammes or less is 29 degrees Celsius. The piglet’s heat demand decreases with age; a 10-kilogram pig, for instance, has a reduced critical temperature of 24 °C. (The specified temperatures reflect conditions of minimal airflow.) Prefers that occur in neonatal piglets are considered inappropriate for sows. To provide an optimal environment for the birth of piglets, the farrowing chamber is customarily maintained at a temperature ranging from 18 to 20 degrees Celsius. Additional heat is supplied to the offspring in the creep area, which is located away from the female.

 

Providing heat for piglets

 

Because piglets demand an environment that is significantly different from that of sows, heated creep or straw areas are indispensable. The prevalence of enclosures that resemble Nurtingers is increasing in farrowing facilities. They are adequately insulated enclosures with a radiator and a double-walled plastic curtain for precise temperature regulation.

Between 29 and 30 °C, the infant’s body temperature falls from 40 °C on the first day following birth to an approximate range of 29 °C to 30 °C by the tenth day. It is advantageous to position very tiny or weak piglets in a crib, including those with acute splay limbs. This is a dry container with a heater lamp that is controlled by a thermostat. They are protected from the sow’s trampling and are provided with the essential warmth at this location.

Once the infants have recovered, they may be reintroduced to the show after being bottle-fed or given a gastric tube. Pigs require a greater proportion of their food consumption to maintain body temperature at suboptimal temperatures, whereas piglets reared at optimal temperatures require less food and develop more efficiently.

 

C. Wean-to-Finish

• This is a period of 6 to 8 weeks
• Following weaning, piglets are moved to a nursery or wean-to-finish barn where they are housed alongside piglets from other litters.
• Weaned piglets are supported by specialised temperature controls and ventilation.
• Piglets consume 0.6 to 1.8 kg of cornmeal or soybean meal per day.
• During this stage, pigs gain between 23 and 27 kg.

 

D. Growing and Finishing

This stage is around 115 to 120 days (16 to 17 weeks). Pigs are transferred from the nursery to the finishing barn as their growth continues. If pigs are currently in a wean-to-finish facility, they will remain there.

During the grow-and-finish phase, pigs consume between 2.7 and 4.5 kg of feed per day.

• A pig’s diet consists of corn and soy meal, along with vitamins and minerals, to ensure its health and growth.
• As the pigs mature, they are observed daily to ensure their health.
• At approximately six months of age, the pigs weigh approximately 120 kg and are then ready for market.

 

Feeding

A. Basic Nutrition for Piglets

A fundamental understanding of pig nutrition is paramount in the realm of pig production. Piglet nutrition guides and pig management techniques agree that pigs must be fed a diet high in protein, low in fibre, and high in energy. Pigs swiftly consume enormous quantities of food. Providing them with the appropriate nutrition and a balanced diet from weaning to finishing is essential for raising and maintaining healthy livestock, optimising growth and reproduction, and increasing production.

Basic feed for piglets:

Although pigs are capable of consuming nearly any food item (including fruits, vegetables, and bread), their growth rates are most effectively maintained when they are provided with feed specifically formulated for their species.

Purchasing complete feeds:

A “complete feed” consists of all essential nutrients and is specifically formulated for pork consumption. Potential constituents include grains, cereal by-products, forages, dehydrated animal products, minerals, and vitamins. Complete feeds are manufactured at a feed manufacturing facility, which is at times an industrial feed mill and at other times a grain elevator located nearby. Local farm supply stores, feed dealers, or the local elevator carry complete feeds. Feed is available for purchase in packaged or bulk quantities from elevators nearby. Feed purchased in bags from agricultural stores or vendors is commonly known as “floor stock.” When packaged in translucent plastic, the vitamin and mineral content of a complete feed degrades over time when exposed to heat, moisture, and sunlight. The term for this is “shelf-life,” and both suppliers and purchasers of complete feed bear responsibility for the quality of the feed that is provided to the pig.

Purchasing a comprehensive feed entails acquiring the manufacturer’s expertise regarding dietary restrictions, nutrient availability in the feedstuffs incorporated, milling and mixing processes, and quality assurance. It is not necessary to cultivate or procure the feed constituents when the complete feed is purchased. Maintaining feed ingredients under the guise of nutrient loss, vermin infestation, and deterioration is superfluous.

Mainly consisting of portions, small regional grain elevators frequently produce entire feed. Pelletisation of feeds is a common practice observed in larger commercial feed mills. Pelleted feed incurs an additional cost. Because pigs are incapable of sorting their feed, each pelleted feed intake provides the intended balanced diet. This stands as the principal benefit of pelleted fodder. The second advantage of pelletised feed is that it results in reduced feed wastage and an improved feed-to-gain ratio by the piglets. Pigs fed in meal form may achieve a feed-to-gain ratio equivalent to that of pigs fed pelleted feed through the use of a properly constructed feeder, increased frequency of tiny meals, and decreased feed waste. Implementing measures to mitigate feed waste, irrespective of the type of feed, could potentially yield greater cost savings than transitioning from a full feed procurement strategy to a certain degree of at-home blending. When feed residue exceeding 10% is discovered lying on the ground adjacent to a feeder, it is apparent.

Foods to avoid:

Specific categories of food ought to be circumvented when preparing a pig food mixture from scratch, due to factors encompassing growth retardation and complete toxicity. In general, the following substances ought to be excluded from pig feed:

• Sweets and high-sugar foods
• Dog food
• Cracked corn
• Milk
• Fish
• Meat
• Fruits
• Potatoes

Sugary foods have the potential to impede growth, whereas meat, fish, and milk may harbour pathogens. Chewing the pits and seeds of apples, pears, apricots, and peaches may result in the ingestion of amygdalin, a cyanogenic glycoside that induces symptoms such as nausea, distress, or fatality. Glycoalkaloids, which are naturally present in potatoes, have the potential to induce severe abdominal pain and, in rare cases, fatality. Additionally, solanine, which destroys red blood cells, induces diarrhoea and culminates in heart failure, is also present in potatoes.

Allocate the correct quantity and type of feed to each stage:

Effective management and care in the farrowing quarters have a substantial influence on the number of liveborn piglets that successfully wean off and their subsequent performance. The mean number of preweaning piglet fatalities per litter, as reported in a 1995 survey of pig management practices in the United States, was 0.88, or 9.4% of those born alive. Suffocation accounted for 48.7% of preweaning mortality, while starvation constituted the other major cause at 20%. Additional research has demonstrated that over 50% of infant fatalities transpire during the initial two to three days following birth.

Effective custodians possess knowledge regarding the physical attributes of newborn piglets that render them highly susceptible to appropriate supervision and attention. Piglets lack antibody protection at birth, store adipose energy for an estimated duration of one day, and do not develop the ability to modulate their body temperature internally until several days after birth. As a result, any factor that diminishes milk production or consumption, including refrigeration or exposure to pathogens, poses a threat to the welfare and health of newborn piglets.

Piglets delivered alive can be broadly classified into two categories: normal and disadvantaged. Differentiating between disadvantaged and healthy piglets is critical for ensuring the provision of suitable assistance. Piglets are typically delivered quickly, attain a standing position within two minutes, and commence suckling within fifteen minutes. They consume an abnormally large quantity of the most concentrated immunoglobulin-rich colostrum as they migrate from teat to teat. Normal offspring flourish with minimal attendant intervention when the sow is a competent maternal figure and the farrowing environment is conducive.

Underweight, debilitated by the rigours of birth, afflicted with congenital defects, delayed in reaching the udder, or chilling are characteristics of disadvantaged piglets. During birth, compromised piglets include those that were not killed but were deprived of oxygen, those that were resuscitated from “apparent” stillbirths, and those that were subjected to excessive physical trauma. As the duration of the sowing process increases, so does the probability that these concerns will materialise. Compared to bulkier piglets, those born weighing less than 1.25 kg have a considerably reduced probability of surviving until weaning.

The splay limb is a prevalent congenital anomaly that is frequently observed in piglets originating from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds. Moreover, disadvantaged piglets approach the udder and stand more slowly. The compromised state of these animals impedes their capacity to contend with healthy littermates for the teats during the initial few hours following birth. This impairs their consumption of colostrum. When chilly, piglets with a low central body temperature are frequently fatally susceptible. It is common to observe these infants huddling with their littermates and trembling due to unmet thermal requirements. This fact sheet delineates management practices that are anticipated to enhance the quantity of weaned piglets produced and their subsequent stages of performance. Certain practices are designed to benefit all piglets in the litter, whereas others are specifically targeted at piglets who have disadvantages. A general window of opportunity exists in which the majority of these techniques are most effective when implemented.

 

B. Pig Food Requirements

The nutritional and hydration requirements of growing pigs change as follows:

• Piglets (less than 20 kg): While still suckling, piglets should be introduced to a substantial diet via creep feeding. A pig’s dietary needs increase daily in proportion to its body mass.
• Growing and finishing pigs (20 kg and above): Transitioning pigs, which consist of those weighing between 18 and 56 kg, and finishing pigs, which comprise those weighing between 56 kg and market weight (approximately 106 kg), from feeds that are high in nutrients and protein to those that are lower in density should be implemented.
• Projected rates of pig growth: Given that piglets consume an estimated 4% of their body weight daily, they necessitate a diverse array of vital nutrients to fulfil their dietary needs. These nutrients comprise water, carbohydrates, lipids, protein (comprising amino acids), minerals, and vitamins. A nutritious diet will cause you to gain between 0.68 and 0.77 kg per day, up to a maximum of 50 kg. Thereafter, one to eight kilogrammes of daily weight gain are anticipated.

Water:

Water is the most essential nutrient. It is the most frequently neglected, least expensive, and widely consumed nutrient. An animal can perish more rapidly from dehydration than any other nutrient deficiency. Water regulates body temperature, transports nutrients, eliminates waste, provides lubrication, and is involved in every metabolic reaction. Consequently, inadequate water resources impact feed utilisation, growth, feed efficiency, and milk generation adversely. Consequently, each stage of production necessitates an adequate quantity of water of superior quality.

Water demands for nursery and final piglets are typically established through water-to-feed ratios (water: feed), which typically fall within the range of 3:1 to 2:1. On the contrary, the water demands of piglets commence in the farrowing house, where they consume 44 ml of water daily; by weaning, this figure increases to 60 ml.

Daily water requirements for a sow during gestation range between 3 and 6 quarts. Conversely, lactating females necessitate a daily water intake of 5 to 10 litres for the production of milk.

Water discharge rate, water pressure, the environment, management, facilities, and diet all impact water consumption. The recommended water flow rates are detailed in the table, with 20 psi being the optimal water pressure to facilitate drinker activation with minimal water waste.

Recommendations for water flow rate.

	Nursery	Grower-finish	Sows
Flow rate (litres per minute)	1-2	2-4	4
Time to fill (500 ml bottle/sec)	60-120	30-60	30

 

Carbohydrates and fats:

Energy is a necessary byproduct of the decomposition of carbohydrates, fats or oils, and excess proteins; it is not a nutrient. Energy is required for all bodily processes, including reproduction, growth, maintenance, and lactation.

Carbohydrates, such as those present in cereal grains like maize, milo, wheat, barley, and their by-products, serve as the principal energy source for pigs. The primary contributors to both the diet and total feed expenses are the constituents of porcine diets that supply carbohydrates and energy. Several environmental factors, including body mass, genetic potential for lean tissue growth, milk production, and temperature, impact the energy demand. When given unrestricted access to feed, the quantity ingested is dictated by the energy content of the diet (ad libitum).

Essential amino acids and protein:

The protein source constitutes the pig’s diet’s second most expensive component. Amino acids (A.A.), which are commonly obtained from protein in the diet, play a vital role in sow maintenance, muscle growth, foetal development, tissue support during gestation, and milk production during lactation. Corn, field peas, soybean meal, canola meal, sunflower meal, and cottonseed meal are the primary plant-based protein sources for pigs.

Ten amino acids, which comprise the building elements of all proteins and number twenty-two in number, are deemed essential for normal development and growth. Arginine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine are the ten essential amino acids for pigs. Lysine, the A.A., and the remaining essential A sufficient quantity of A.A.s is generally provided in diets consisting of maize and soy meal.

Minerals:

Although minerals constitute a negligible proportion of pig diets, their importance should not be underestimated. Dietary mineral supplements are essential to ensure that mineral requirements are fulfilled, as feedstuffs may contain deficiencies in minerals. Minerals are involved in regulatory, metabolic, and structural processes within the organism. A dearth of minerals leads to a reduction in agricultural productivity, while excessive mineral addition is expensive and may result in toxicity. Therefore, mineral nutrition must be precise.

Per the amount that must be consumed, minerals are categorised as macrominerals and microminerals. Macrominerals such as potassium, calcium, phosphorus, sodium, chlorine, and magnesium must be supplied in increased proportions and are typically denoted as a percentage (%) of the diet. Microminerals (zinc, copper, iron, manganese, iodine, and selenium) are trace minerals that necessitate reduced dietary intake. Their concentrations are denoted in parts per million (ppm) or mg/kg.

 

Vitamins:

Vitamins are essential for reproduction, development, growth, and maintenance. Vitamins may be obtained from the animal’s diet or internally. A vitamin premix must be added to the diet in the event of vitamin deficiency to eliminate deficiency and ensure optimal production.

Vitamins can be classified as either water-soluble or fat-soluble. In that order, the primary functions of the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K are blood coagulation, calcium and phosphorus metabolism, tissue formation, and antioxidant defence. The coenzymes of numerous metabolic processes are B-complex water-soluble vitamins. Pantothenic acid, riboflavin, vitamin B12, and niacin are the most frequently added B vitamins to pig diets. Further supplementation of sow diets with folic acid, pyridoxine, choline, and biotin is implemented to enhance reproductive performance.

 

C. Coordination of Feed Production

The achievement of maximum stock growth can be facilitated through the formulation of premium pig feed. Sufficient energy sources, protein, minerals, and vitamins should be included in the animal’s diet to support its growth, development, and reproductive requirements.

Grains are the most common and optimal source of nutrition for pigs. Feeds derived from corn are prevalent due to their low cost, high content of digestible carbohydrates, and low fibre content. Vitamins, proteins, and antibacterial agents should be added to the feed to prevent the proliferation of naturally occurring microbes that may be detrimental to the animal or your stock. Feeds incorporating various byproducts of distillers’ residues, rice fibre, fractured rice, maize, soya beans, cassava, and vegetables have demonstrated favourable outcomes.

 

D. Feed Supply to Juveniles

Considerable investigation has been undertaken to ascertain the exact nutrient needs associated with foetal development, mammary gland maturation, and milk production. This study will investigate how nutrition strategies can be adjusted to meet the nutrient needs of a sow to enhance its health and productivity. The primary sources of research data employed in this analysis are studies that were undertaken by the authors from 1996 to 2013.

Nutritional challenges:

The conventional dietary regimen for expectant sows fails to supply adequate protein and minerals during late gestation, leading to the induction of a catabolic state. Gestational sows are fed 8 to 11 g of true ileal digestible (TID) Lys daily on diets composed of regular corn-soybean meal. Recent studies have shown that traditional dietary regimens would substantially insufficiently nourish Lys in the latter stages of gestation when its requirements increase from 6.8 to 15.3 g/d. Foetal tissue gain increases significantly from early to late gestation, from 0.25 to 4.63 g CP/d/foetus and from 0.41 to 3.50 g CP/gland, respectively. The restricted circulation of nutrients to the foetus is an additional factor resulting from the placental blood flow limitation. An increase in blood flow facilitated by dietary supplementation of arginine, which can produce nitric oxide in endothelial cells lining blood vessels and induce vasodilation, might reduce foetal weight variation.

Nutrient requirements for pigs:

As the animal loses weight, an increasing percentage of the energy contained in the feed is required for maintenance. Maintenance requirements may account for as much as 40% of the energy consumed. These requirements consist of:

• Fatty tissue synthesis necessitates an approximate nutrition input of 3.5 kg per kg, whereas lean tissue synthesis only demands 1.25 kg per kg. Consequently, any decrease in classification (an increase in fatness) will inevitably result in a reduction in feed efficiency.
• In regard to feed wastage, recent research has revealed that the mean
• South African pig farm disposes of around 10% of the feed. The regional amount of feed waste might be comparable. Feeder mechanical modification and repair should thus be regarded as a daily managerial priority. As a general rule, the floor of the self-feeder receptacle should be visible to within fifty percent. Feed trough bottoms that are entirely saturated with feed are likely to be inefficient.
• Protein Deposition Depletion: The genetic value of a pig is assessed based on its capacity to deposit lean flesh. The lean deposition curve resembles a rainbow. For improved animals, lean deposition may exhibit a delayed decline after reaching a plateau. Feed efficiency is diminished by any decrease in lean meat deposition during the refining phase.

 

Feed programme:

An ever-present pig population is at our disposal. As a result, prerequisites differ according to sex, genetic predisposition, age, weight, health status, and appetite. Not the response of the most accomplished individual but that of the group as a whole is significant.

1. Dietary energy density

Young piglets receive optimal nutrition from diets that have a high energy density. After 50 kg, lower-density regimens may be implemented. The amount of energy expended is primarily determined by the breed’s genetic composition, but also:

• The cost of the primary materials that are currently available.
• The performance objective that the cultivator aims to achieve.
• The composition of the carcass desired.

The energy consumption of pigs is diminished when the diet density is decreased. Thus, both the ADG and fatness of the pig are decreased. Energy restriction reduces only body fat without affecting muscular growth.

2. Phase feeding

Following the 30 to 55 kg mark, a grower diet is conventionally applied, while a finisher diet is utilised from 56 kg until market. While the implementation of the two-phase nutrition programme may appear straightforward, there are intrinsic drawbacks to maximising lean development, particularly for genotypes that are already quite lean.

By administering a variety of diets throughout the grower-finisher phase, the pig’s nutrient requirements are more precisely met, which increases the efficacy of lean gain. Performance can be impaired by excessive ingestion of AA, particularly during the concluding phase (90 kg to market weight). The observed melancholy appears to be the result of the pig’s physiological strain caused by the processing and elimination of protein beyond its nutritional requirements. The economic ramifications of excess magnitude and metabolic burden are substantial. Multiple regimens implemented during the grower-finisher phase will consequently enhance performance while reducing additional feed expenses.

Weight gain and adipose deposition are positively correlated with an increase in energy demand, whereas lysine needs remain comparatively stable. Greater intakes compensate for increased requirements. Pigs with a modest intake must maintain an energy concentration between 50 and 90 kg. Primarily required for muscular growth, lysine concentration swiftly decreases with increasing intake.

The benefits of using 3 diets are as follows:

• Carcass weight increased by 2.7 kg.
• Yield and dressing percentage increased by 1.4%.
• Backfat thickness decreased.
• Loin and barn weights increased by 2.2 and 4.9 % respectively.

There is a general tendency among us to provide recommendations for pigs on the premise of their age rather than their daily nutrient needs.

• Feed intake during completion is the most significant determinant of nutritional needs. Pigs with low intakes (growing slowly) should be transitioned from one phase to the next considerably later than those with high intakes (growing rapidly).
• AA levels in feed for senior hogs should be determined by daily intakes as opposed to maintaining constant AA-to-calorie ratios in feed.
• Under the assumption that there is no restriction on lean growth due to energy ingestion, an augmentation in energy (or feed) consumption ought to align with a decrease in AA concentrations in the diet (or conversely).
• Conversely, if one were to hypothesise that lean growth is constrained by energy intake, one would advise maintaining the AA level while augmenting the daily amino acid intake in response to an increase in (energy) FI.

3. Adequate water intake

During the initial days following farrowing, sows experience intermittent dehydration, which may be a contributing factor to suboptimal milk production.

• During the initial days following birth, when high environmental temperatures and malnutrition may contribute to dehydration in piglets.
• In the case of newly weaned piglets, who are compelled to promptly restore their water balance through imbibing and whose vulnerability to diarrhoea may be exacerbated by the water’s high mineral content.
• Pigs raised at 35 °C require twice as much water as those raised at 5 °C. Because food consumption diminishes as temperature rises, the water-to-food ratio increases, resulting in more moist manure.

Wet nutrition is currently the subject of significant interest due to its potential application in biotechnology to enhance the digestibility of dried matter. There are numerous advantages to liquid nutrition, particularly when the feed is steeped for some time before administration. A major advantage is the minimisation of feed waste. The magnitude of dust losses can often be underestimated, yet it is crucial to reduce it. A finishing pig with a daily feed intake of 2.0 kg requires only 4 g of wasted feed per hour to achieve a noticeable FCR reduction of 5%. The emission of waste in the form of dust into the atmosphere contributes to an increase in the incidence of respiratory diseases and a subsequent decline in productivity.

4. Fermentation feeding

Fermentation feeding involves the utilisation of lactobacilli strains to ferment the cereal component of the diet throughout an overnight period. This results in a 10% increase in the digestibility of the grain.

• The feed’s composition is also modified through the use of wet feeding.
• Soaking not only stimulates the enzymes present in the diet constituents, but the natural flora of the diet also increases phosphorus availability. Initial research has indicated that phytases, which are naturally present in the pericarp of cereals, promote the dissociation of phosphorus from phytase-phosphorus when exposed to a moist medium.
• The moist formulation of the pig’s feed also seems to augment its digestibility.

5. Response to protein

Insufficient provision of protein in one’s diet hinders the attainment of optimal lean tissue growth. The energy that is subsequently conserved during protein synthesis is redirected towards the expansion of adipose tissue. An excess of protein on the opposite band diminishes energy status. About half of the energy produced by protein deamination is protein itself. Therefore, as the dc-animation rate increases, the nett energy of a diet will decrease, as there will be less energy available for fat deposition. Leanness can be achieved through an excess of total protein supplied in comparison to the requirements for protein maintenance and lean growth.

6. Energy for growth

Research findings suggest that the energy demand for pigs is represented by values ranging from 0.63 to 0.65%, with a value of 0.75% assigned to mature animals and 0.63% to developing piglets.

7. Environmental effects

When the temperature exceeds the upper critical temperature (UCT) of the thermoneutral zone, the piglets expend additional energy to reduce their body temperature. Pigs in the process of growth require an additional 25 g of food for every 1-degree Celsius decrease in ambient temperature. In the case of finishing piglets, this rises to 40 g of feed per 1 °C, which is followed by a decline in feed efficacy due to the increased energy required for heat production. The following should also be considered:

• Ventilation
• Infectious environment.
• Stocking density.