Vineyard Planting and Establishment

Figure 19A newly planted vineyard

 

Planting the Vineyard

A. Obtaining Grapevines for Planting 

Determining the number of vines required: 

To determine the number of grapevines needed for a new vineyard planting, start by measuring the area designated for planting. This information should have been gathered during the initial planning and mapping of the vineyard, excluding any sections marked for headlands, alleyways, and access roads. If the planting area has an irregular shape, mark out and measure smaller subareas for planting. Then, add up the areas of these subareas to find the total planting area. 

For example, a vineyard layout comprises two rectangular sections measuring 100 m by 50 m and 120 m by 40 m. The combined area of these two sections is 9 800 square meters. To convert this area into hectares, divide it by the area of one hectare (10,000 square meters), indicating that there are approximately 0.98 hectares to be planted. 

To determine the number of vines needed per hectare of vineyard (known as the plant population per hectare), multiply the chosen row and vine spacings in meters, and then divide 10,000 by that value. For example, if you have chosen row and vine spacings of 3 meters and 2 meters, respectively, the land area required per vine would be 3 x 2 = 6 square meters. Dividing 10,000 by this value shows that you will need approximately 1 667 vines to plant one hectare of vineyard.

Planting vines at this spacing on the approximately 0.98 hectares of vineyard in the example would require 0.98 x 1667 = 1634 vines needed for planting. 

Purchasing grafted vines or rooted rootstocks:

Rootstocks and grapevines can be purchased from certified grapevine nurseries. Request written certification of their trueness to variety and absence of pests and diseases. It is extremely important to order rootstocks or vines well in advance, around 12 to 18 months, as grapevines from nurseries are in high demand and their availability may fluctuate from year to year. 

Instead of grafted vines, rooted rootstocks can also be planted and after one year in the vineyard, the desired variety can be grafted on the rootstock. However, this is not a widespread practice, as it is time-consuming during spring when there are a lot of other activities that need attention. 

It is advised to plant extra vines in plant bags to use, should it be necessary to replant poor vines. 

B. Selecting Healthy Plants for Optimal Growth

Selecting healthy grapevine planting stock is crucial for establishing a successful vineyard. Below are some crucial factors to consider when choosing grapevine planting stock.

Choose a reputable nursery:

Purchase grapevine planting stock from a reputable nursery or supplier known for providing healthy and high-quality vines. Research and choose nurseries that have a good record, positive reviews, and adhere to proper cultivation practices. It is highly recommended to visit the nursery during the growing season to inspect your vines. There are two ways of planting a new vineyard. The most common method is by dormant plants, planted during the winter and before bud break commences. The second method is the “cartonnage” method, where actively growing vines are planted in spring. The “cartonnage” method is trickier in that the actively growing plants are more susceptible to wilting.

Obtain disease-free plants:

Ensure that the grapevine planting stock is free from any visible signs of diseases or pests. Look for plants with healthy leaves and shoots, and no evidence of discoloration, spots, or deformities. Examine the plants thoroughly to detect any signs of common grapevine diseases such as powdery mildew, downy mildew, or viruses. Cut a piece of about 4 cm long between the nodes of several dormant canes, taken randomly. Blow through the piece. Bubbles should appear. If not, the plants are dried out and there is a considerable risk to plant such plants. This is an accurate test to determine if plants are in perfect condition. Be careful of plants stored in a cold room. Cold rooms dry plants out, despite countermeasures taken.

Selection of rootstock:

By carefully selecting healthy grapevine planting stock, you set a solid foundation for your vineyard, increasing the chances of successful establishment and long-term vine health. Select grapevine plants with strong and vigorous growth characteristics. Look for well-developed canes, healthy root systems, and balanced foliage. Plants that exhibit robust growth are more likely to establish quickly and thrive in the vineyard. Eliminate plants with poor growth.

Check the graft unions from several vines. Make sure that the callus growth at the graft union is around the plant. Do the “bend and twist” test on several plants (usually the weaker plants). Press the scion with the thumb in all directions and twist the plant at the graft union. This method will show if the graft unions are perfect. Do not use excessive force. There is usually a strong correlation between the vigour of the plant and the quality of the graft union. To produce strong vigour, the vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) should be well developed in the graft union to support the strong vigour.

Inspect the roots of the grapevine plants. They should be firm, well-formed, and free from any signs of rot, damage, or pests. Avoid plants with roots that are excessively tangled or show signs of stress.

Aim for uniformity in the grapevine planting stock. Choose plants that have similar sizes and growth patterns, as this facilitates consistent management practices, such as pruning and trellising, in the vineyard.

Purchase certified stock:

Consider purchasing certified grapevine planting stock. Certified plants have undergone thorough inspections, testing, and certification processes to ensure they are free from specific diseases and meet certain quality standards. Certification programmes vary by region, so consult local agricultural authorities for information on certified grapevine stock.

Variety selection:

Choose grapevine varieties and rootstocks that are well-suited to your specific climate, soil conditions, and desired grape production. Research and select varieties that have proven records in your region and are known for their disease resistance, adaptability, and quality of fruit.

C. Safekeeping of Plant Material Before Planting

Store the plant material in a cool and controlled environment to maintain its freshness and vitality. Extreme temperatures can harm plants, so it is essential to keep them away from direct sunlight, heat sources, and freezing temperatures.

Ensure that the plant material is stored in a moist but not overly wet condition. Keep the roots or planting medium slightly damp to prevent dehydration or excessive drying. Avoid waterlogging or excessive moisture, as it can lead to rot or fungal issues. Consider using materials such as damp paper or horticultural cloth to wrap the roots and retain moisture.

Provide proper ventilation to prevent the accumulation of excessive humidity and the onset of fungal diseases. Avoid storing the plant material in sealed containers or plastic bags that can trap moisture. Instead, use open containers or breathable bags that allow air circulation.

Minimise the risk of pests and diseases by keeping the plant material in a clean and controlled environment. Regularly inspect the stored material for any signs of pests or diseases and take immediate action if any issues are detected. Quarantine new plant material separately to prevent the spread of potential pests or diseases to existing plants.

Clearly label the stored plant material to avoid confusion or mix-ups. Include information such as the plant species, variety, source, and any specific instructions for handling or planting. Organise the stored material in a systematic manner, ensuring easy access and efficient retrieval when needed.

Limit the duration of storage for plant material, especially for rooted plants or live plants that are susceptible to desiccation or root damage. Ideally, plant the material as soon as possible to minimise the risk of deterioration or loss of viability. If there is a delay, consult with the supplier or nursery for specific guidelines on the maximum recommended storage period.

Regularly monitor the stored plant material for any signs of stress, disease, or deterioration. Check for wilting, discolouration, mould, or pest infestation. Promptly address any issues by adjusting the storage conditions or seeking appropriate treatments.

It is important to note that several types of plant material (such as rooted plants, container-grown plants, or cuttings) may have specific storage requirements. Consult the supplier, nursery, or viticulture expert for detailed instructions on safekeeping specific types of plant material.

D. Preparing the Field for Planting 

Soil preparation:

Since vegetation and debris have already been removed, earthworks development has been completed and soil amendments have been made, it is time to prepare the soil for planting. Verify with soil tests that the soil amendments had the desired effect, and that the soil’s nutrient status is adequate for planting. 

Depending on your soil type, perform appropriate tillage operations to enhance soil structure and further improve drainage. Loosening the soil not only improves root penetration but also aids in the establishment of a healthy root system.

The soil should be level and workably loose to a depth of at least 20 cm. At this point, some farmers choose to create furrows for planting the vines, typically around 50 cm deep.

Furrows or holes in which the vines will be planted must be at least 25 cm in diameter and 50 cm deep to allow for healthy root development. These can be made by hand using a shovel or with the help of a planter. 

Marking the field:

Accurate field marking is a critical aspect of efficient vineyard layout and ensures that you can effectively manage your vineyard. Follow these steps: 

Analyse the measurements of the vineyard blocks in the preliminary vineyard map. The goal is to determine the ideal row spacing and the distance between individual vines. These measurements will vary depending on the grape variety and trellis system you plan to use. 

Find a perfect 90° angle in the area to be planted. Use Pythagoras equation for this. Pythagoras’ equation is c2 = a2 + b2, where c is the longest side of the triangle. For instance, if the area to be planted is ABCD, measure two sides of the triangle as 12m and 9 m. The longest side, c2 is then 122 + 152 = 144 + 81 = 225. The square root of 225 = 15. The larger the triangle, the more accurate the measurements will be (see the Figure below).

Figure 20How to measure out a square in the area to be planted

 

Use wooden stakes and strings to mark the positions for the vine rows and spacing. Stretch strings tightly between stakes to create straight, evenly spaced lines. These lines will serve as the planting guides: A vine should be planted at each intersection of the strings (see the Figure below). 

Install end posts at the beginning and end of each row. These sturdy markers serve as reference points for ensuring proper alignment and provide stability to the trellis system. 

Figure 21Vines are planted at the intersections of the perpendicular strings to ensure accurate spacing

 

With the field adequately prepared and marked, you can now proceed to the essential steps of planting grapevines. This process involves preparing the vines, selecting a planting method, and performing post-planting activities.

E. Planting Vines 

Various methods can be employed for planting grapevines.

Planting rooted vines:

This is the most common method, where vine roots are submerged in water for 6 to 12 hours before the vine is planted directly into the soil. For this technique, place the roots as deep into the trench as possible and twist the vine in an upward motion to distribute the roots evenly. 

“Cartonnage” vines:

“Cartonnage” vines are grafted during the winter months. The grafted vines are planted in a sleeve of carton or in plastic trays and kept in a greenhouse where the temperature and humidity are controlled. The ideal growing conditions allow the plants to develop fast. As soon as the green shoots reach about 40 to 50 cm, they are ready for planting. It can be as early as September. Planting of “cartonnage” vines after October, is not advised. The high temperature in November may result in plant losses.

 
Figure 22 a b“Cartonnage” vines. On the left, root development and on the right, planted in the vineyard

 

Container planting:

Grapevines can also be planted in containers or plastic bags to grow, and later transplanted into the vineyard. Several plants may be planted in bags to replace vines which died or are not performing.

Grafted vines:

Grafted vines should be planted with the graft union about 5 to 10 cm above the soil level. Scion roots will develop when the graft unions are in contact with the soil.

F. Time of Day for Planting

Planting grapevines at the correct time of day, specifically during the cooler hours, is important for several reasons:

  • Minimising stress on the plants: Immerse dormant plants in water for about 6 to 12 hours prior to planting. The plants will absorb moisture and thus have a better chance to survive the planting process. Keep plants in water until they are ready to plant. Planting grapevines during the cooler parts of the day, such as early morning or late afternoon, helps minimise stress on the plants. Cooler temperatures reduce the risk of heat stress, particularly in regions with hot climates. Planting during these times allows the grapevines to acclimatise and establish themselves before the potentially hotter and more stressful parts of the day.
  • Preserving moisture: Planting during cooler hours helps preserve moisture in the soil. Planting in the early morning or late afternoon allows the grapevine roots to absorb moisture from the soil more efficiently, as evaporation rates are typically lower during these times. This helps ensure that the newly planted grapevines have access to the water they need for establishment and reduces the risk of water stress.
  • Working conditions: Planting grapevines during cooler hours improves working conditions for the individuals involved in the planting process. High temperatures during the peak of the day can be physically demanding and increase the risk of heat exhaustion or dehydration. By choosing cooler hours, the planting process can be more comfortable and safer for the workers.

By following these guidelines, you can ensure the safekeeping of plant material prior to planting, maintaining its health and viability, and increasing the chances of successful establishment in the field or garden.

G. Post-Planting Activities

Figure 23Newly planted vines attached to a support system


Staking:

Young vines can be fastened to a reed, wooden stake, or wire rod using rope or plastic strips. This ensures that the vine grows upright and in a controlled manner. Regularly lifting the main trunk upright will keep it as straight as possible. The movement of harvesting equipment, like tractors, is more difficult by crooked trunks, which also result in uneven cordon lengths on either side of the trunk. 

Staking is optional, but it serves to get the young plant ready for future growth on the trellis system and improves the coverage of pesticide spray. This is helpful because vines are especially vulnerable to pests and disease in the first 2 years. 

Growing tubes:

Growing tubes, often referred to as vine shelters or vine guards, are used for young vines immediately after planting. They protect young grapevine plants by shielding them from harsh environmental conditions, herbivores, and herbicides, which can be particularly detrimental during the vulnerable initial stages of growth. Growing tubes also create a microclimate around the vines, enhancing heat retention and humidity, and thereby promoting accelerated growth. 

 
Figure 24Young vines in growing tubes

 

Fertilising:

Newly planted vines benefit from the application of nitrogen fertiliser. Applying 100 to 150 kg of pure nitrogen (N) per hectare may be necessary in the first year of growth for table grapes. This may be the equivalent of 500 to 600 litres of ammonium nitrate (33) per hectare per season. Young vines do not need a lot of phosphorous (P) or potassium (K). A total of 15 kg P/ha and 15 kg K/ha will be sufficient. For wine grapes, the total amount of nitrogen may be less. 

Fertiliser should be applied as a ring around the vine and not directly around the vine. Placing it too near may result in damage to the young developing roots. The aim should be that the young plant must reach the cordon wire (about 1.8 m) before Christmas. Nitrogen application should stop by the middle of January for plants to slow down in vigour and go into dormancy by the end of April. When young vines keep on growing by the end of April, Ethephon at a rate of 4 litres/ha should be sprayed. Within 2 weeks after application, the leaves will begin to turn yellow and in 3 to 4 weeks the vines will go into dormancy. It is not recommended to use zinc sulphate or Paraquat. 

G. Watering of Newly Planted Vines

Proper watering practices help ensure that the vines receive adequate moisture for root development and minimise stress during this crucial period. Immediately after planting the grapevines, provide a thorough initial watering to ensure proper contact with the soil particles and the roots. Use a gentle stream of water or a watering can, to evenly distribute water around the base of each vine. Ensure that the water reaches the root zone.

Water the newly planted grapevines regularly to keep the soil consistently moist but not waterlogged. The frequency of watering depends on several factors such as soil type, weather conditions, and vine growth stage. In general, water the vines every few days during the first few weeks, gradually reducing the frequency as the vines establish. Monitor soil moisture levels and adjust the watering schedule as needed.

Apply water deeply to encourage the development of deep root systems. Shallow watering promotes shallow root growth, making the vines more susceptible to drought stress. Aim to moisten the soil to a depth of at least 60 centimetres. Slow and deep watering allows the roots to access moisture at lower soil levels, promoting stronger and more resilient vines.

Apply a layer of organic mulch around the base of the grapevines, leaving a gap around the trunk to prevent moisture build-up and potential rot. Mulch helps retain soil moisture, regulate soil temperature, and suppress weed growth. Maintain an appropriate mulch thickness (5 to 10 centimetres) and replenish it as needed.

Consider using an appropriate irrigation system based on the size of the vineyard and available resources. Drip irrigation or micro-sprinklers are commonly used in vineyards as they provide efficient and targeted water delivery to the root zone. These methods minimise water waste, reduce the risk of foliar diseases, and promote water conservation.

Consider the evapotranspiration rates of the grapevines, which refer to the amount of water lost through both evaporation from the soil surface and transpiration by the plants. Monitor local weather conditions and consult local agricultural authorities or weather stations to determine the Et rates in your region. Adjust your watering schedule and volume based on these rates to meet the water needs of the vines.

Water the grapevines in the early morning hours whenever possible. Morning watering allows the foliage to dry off during the day, reducing the risk of foliar diseases. It also ensures that the vines have access to moisture before the potentially hotter and drier parts of the day.

 

Managing of Planted Vines

A. Vineyard Management in the First Year 

The first year after planting grapevines is a critical period that sets the stage for their long-term health and productivity. Proper vineyard management during this time is essential to ensure that the vines establish themselves effectively.

Shoot growth management:

In the initial year of vineyard establishment, it is important to monitor and manage the number of shoots per vine to promote healthy growth and balanced vine development. 

As the grapevines begin to grow, assess the number of shoots that emerge from each vine. The most common method is to select the strongest and most upright shoot and train this to be the trunk of the vine. A second shoot, which is topped, may be left as a spare until the primary shoot reaches the cordon wire. Otherwise, the vine can be left to grow unpruned for the first year.

In most plants, including vines, there is a 1:1 ratio between the vine’s growth above the soil and the root system. Therefore, if the growth that you can see is satisfactory, you do not need to worry about root development. The idea is to get maximum root volume for the vines. A minimum root depth of 80 to 90 cm is required. However, if there is no restriction, vine roots can penetrate more than 3 m deep. 

During the first year, it is advised to remove any fruit that may develop on the young grapevines. Removing bunches serves two important purposes: 

By removing bunches, you redirect the vine’s limited energy and resources towards root and shoot development. This promotes stronger, healthier vines. 

Young vines are more susceptible to stress and disease, and allowing fruit to develop can exacerbate these risks.

Pest and disease control and soil management:

Early pest and disease control measures are critical for safeguarding the health of newly planted grapevines. To achieve effective pest control while establishing a vineyard, growers must balance two factors: 

  1. Weeds and vegetation compete with the grapevines for resources but also prevent soil erosion. 
  2. Weed-free areas lower disease pressure and competition for resources but promote erosion. 

It is recommended to leave a weed-free strip on the grapevine rows at least one meter wide. Between the rows, there may be some vegetation to prevent erosion. Mulching is a great alternative but requires constant upkeep to prevent the harbouring of pests.

Regularly inspect the vineyard for signs of pests and diseases – at least weekly – and pay careful attention to areas close to woodlands. Early detection allows for timely intervention and minimises potential damage.

Employ integrated pest management (IPM) techniques, which may include the use of beneficial insects, traps, or, if necessary, targeted chemical pesticide applications. A fungicide spray programme is crucial in the first year of vineyard establishment since young vines are especially vulnerable to powdery mildew. 

B. Vineyard Management in the Second Year 

As your grapevines enter their second year of growth, they transition from their initial stages of establishment to a more structured growth pattern. Proper vineyard management in the second year is crucial for shaping and training the vines, optimising their productivity, and addressing any issues that may arise.

Managing grapevine growth in the second year also focuses on developing a strong vegetative structure. However, if growth was vigorous in the first year, pruning according to the permanent vine training system may be necessary. 

Establishing the permanent vine training system by pruning:

Shoot thinning and pruning in the second year is essential for establishing the permanent vine structure that will guide your grapevines throughout their productive life.

Identify and retain the healthiest shoots that will serve as the primary framework (cordons) for your vine. Typically, 2 to 4 primary shoots per vine are selected, depending on your chosen training system. Wait until the primary shoot passes the cordon wire for about 15 cm and top it. Lateral shoots will develop. Remove excess shoots and train the strongest two shoots to both sides to form the (lower) cordon. The lower cordon is usually developed on the second wire (counted from the bottom). When an H-system of four cordons needs to be developed, train a shoot from the lower cordon to the third wire, and top it when it develops lateral shoots. Take the strongest two and train them left and right to form the upper cordons of the H-system. 

The development of the framework (cordons) for wine grapes is usually less complicated, compared to the larger systems used for table grapes. It is important to understand that the production capacity and quality of the crop are related to the effective canopy surface, capable of optimal photosynthesis. 

Pay attention to bud positioning during pruning, as this will influence the direction of shoot growth. Buds pointing in the desired direction should be retained, while others can be removed. 

Figure 25Common grapevine pruning methodology in the first and second years of vineyard establishment

 

Tying grapevines to the trellis system:

A well-constructed trellis system in conjunction with properly pruned and tied vines will result in a strong and straight trunk. Tying vines to the trellis is ideally done after pruning has taken place but before new vine growth. 

Attach the primary shoot(s) to the trellis system with clips or twist ties. Ensure that the vines are aligned with the trellis wires or support structure. Use soft ties or clips to secure the vines, avoiding damage to the canes and shoots. 

Shoot removal:

Regularly inspect your vines for shoots that emerge from the rootstock below the graft union. Remove these shoots promptly to prevent them from competing with the desired vine growth. Ensure that the graft unions are not below the surface of the soil. 

Shoot topping:

The removal of the top 15 to 25 cm from a shoot is known as topping. To control excessive shoot growth and encourage lateral shoot development, remove the tips of shoots when they reach about 30 cm above the trellis system. Cut the first internode above the trellis wire. This helps redirect the vine’s energy towards lateral shoots and canopy development. 

Bunch removal:

In the second year, as with the first year, consider removing bunches to reduce the fruit load and redirect growth to the development of the vine’s framework. However, it is possible to produce a crop of about 25% of the final crop in the second year if you have a strong vine. This is common practice with table grapes. It may reduce your negative cash flow by as much as two years, breaking even in year five, instead of year seven.

Replanting dead or weak vines:

Carefully assess each vine to identify those that have not survived or show poor vigour. This may be due to poor graft unions, diseases, pests, or environmental factors. Remove the dead or weak vines and replace them with healthy plants. Pay attention to proper planting techniques to ensure the new vines’ successful establishment. 

Fertilising:

In the second year, it is advised to apply enough nitrogen per hectare to support vine growth. The amount of pure nitrogen may be 80 to 120 kg N/ha/season. The fertiliser can be applied as bands or as rings around the vines at about 30 cm around the vine. 

Otherwise, soil analysis may be employed to accurately quantify nutrient levels in the vineyard and then apply soil amendments accordingly. Avoid excessive nitrogen, which can lead to excessive vegetative growth which may have a negative effect on fruit quality. 

Pest control:

Early in spring of the second year, the vineyard (especially the area of about one meter wide on the vine row) should be kept free of weeds. Pre-emergent herbicides can be used early in spring; however, it is more common to apply glyphosate later in spring. Glyphosate is a systemic herbicide; therefore, it is most effective on weeds with green growth. 

Maintain monitoring for pests and diseases in your vineyard, as well as signs of previous issues. Undertake regular vineyard maintenance to reduce potential pest habitats, such as weeds and debris that can harbour pests. Continue the same disease prevention practices as in the first year, such as canopy management and fungicide applications, to minimise the risk of fungal diseases. 

 

Impact of Environmental Conditions

A. Favourable Soil Conditions When Planting

Favourable soil conditions play a crucial role in the successful establishment and growth of transplanted grapevines in the field. Below are key factors that contribute to favourable soil conditions for transplanting grapevines.

It is important to note that specific soil conditions can vary depending on grapevine varieties, regional climate, and local soil characteristics. Conducting a soil analysis and consulting with local viticulture experts or agricultural extension services can provide tailored recommendations for soil preparation and amendments specific to your vineyard site. Creating and maintaining favourable soil conditions will help promote the healthy establishment and growth of transplanted grapevines, setting the foundation for a productive vineyard.

Soil drainage:

Good soil drainage is essential for grapevines as they are sensitive to waterlogged conditions. Excessively wet soil can lead to root suffocation and fungal disease (Phytophthora cinnamomi) development. Ideally, the soil should have a well-drained structure that allows excess water to drain away, preventing waterlogging and promoting healthy root development. Sandy loam or loamy soils are considered ideal for grapevine cultivation due to their good drainage characteristics.

Soil texture and structure:

The soil texture and structure influence water retention, aeration, and nutrient availability. A loamy soil texture, which is a balanced mixture of sand, silt, and clay, is considered favourable for grapevines. Loam soils offer good water-holding capacity while allowing for adequate drainage and root penetration. The soil structure should be friable, allowing for easy root growth and nutrient movement within the soil profile. With table grapes, where earliness is important, sandy, and rocky soils are preferred because they produce earlier grapes.

Soil pH:

Grapevines typically prefer slightly acidic to neutral soil pH levels ranging from 6.0 to 7.0. This pH range promotes nutrient availability and optimal root growth. Conducting a soil pH test before planting can help determine if any amendments are needed to adjust the pH to the desired range.

Soil fertility and nutrient content:

Adequate soil fertility is important for the healthy growth of grapevines. Essential nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and micronutrients, should be present in sufficient quantities in the soil. Conducting a soil analysis before planting can provide valuable information about the nutrient content of the soil and guide the application of fertilisers or soil amendments, as necessary.

Organic matter content:

Soil organic matter contributes to soil fertility, moisture retention, and overall soil health. Incorporating organic matter, such as compost or well-rotted manure, into the soil before planting can improve its structure, nutrient-holding capacity, and microbial activity. Avoid compost and/or manure in plant holes. The humic acids released may damage the roots in close contact, resulting in plant losses.

Soil compaction:

Avoid planting grapevines in heavily compacted soils as they can hinder root penetration, drainage, and nutrient uptake. If the soil is compacted, proper soil cultivation techniques, such as deep tilling or subsoiling, can help alleviate compaction and improve soil conditions.

Soil moisture:

Before planting, ensure that the soil has adequate moisture but is not excessively wet or dry. Proper soil moisture promotes good root-to-soil contact and facilitates the establishment of transplanted grapevines. Irrigation practices should be implemented to maintain consistent soil moisture during the initial growth stages.

B. Effects of Root Shock

Root shock, also known as transplant shock, refers to the stress and negative impact experienced by newly planted grapevines when their root systems are disturbed during transplantation. Some of the effects of root shock on newly planted grapevines include:

  • Reduced water and nutrient uptake: Root shock disrupts the normal functioning of the grapevine’s root system, impairing its ability to absorb water and nutrients from the soil. This can lead to temporary water stress and nutrient deficiencies in the plant, affecting its growth and overall health.
  • Stunted growth: Newly planted grapevines may experience a period of slowed or stunted growth as they recover from root shock. This is because their energy is directed towards re-establishing root growth and restoring their ability to absorb water and nutrients. The vine may exhibit reduced shoot growth, limited leaf development, and delayed or inhibited bud break.
  • Leaf wilting and yellowing: Root shock can cause leaf wilting, yellowing, or even defoliation in newly planted grapevines. The disruption of the root system’s water uptake ability can result in inadequate moisture supply to the leaves, leading to wilting and loss of turgidity. Nutrient deficiencies associated with root shock can also manifest as yellowing or discolouration of leaves.
  • Increased susceptibility to diseases and pests: When grapevines undergo root shock, their overall vigour and resilience may be compromised. This weakened state makes them more susceptible to diseases, pests, and other environmental stressors. Fungal infections, such as root rot or crown rot, can take advantage of the weakened plant, further exacerbating the stress on the vine.
  • Temporary setback in establishment: Root shock can temporarily set back the establishment of newly planted grapevines. The recovery period varies depending on several factors such as vine health, environmental conditions, and management practices. With proper care and attention, the vines can gradually recover and resume normal growth.

To minimise the effects of root shock and aid in the recovery of newly planted grapevines, the following measures can be taken:

  • Provide regular and appropriate irrigation to ensure sufficient water supply to the roots during the recovery period. Proper watering techniques, such as deep watering to encourage root growth, can help alleviate water stress.
  • Supply essential nutrients to support the recovery and growth of the vines. Soil amendments or fertilisers may be applied based on soil test results and nutritional requirements.
  • Apply organic mulch around the base of the grapevines to help conserve soil moisture, moderate soil temperature, and suppress weed growth. Mulching can reduce the stress on the recovering roots. Avoid too much and too thick compost around the trunk of vines. A fungus (Sclerotium rolfsi) can develop on the organic material and under favourable conditions it may attack the bark of the vines.
  • Monitor the vines closely for any signs of diseases or pest infestations and act appropriately to prevent or treat them. Healthy plants are more resilient to withstand and recover from stress.
  • Minimise other stress factors such as excessive heat, drought, or harsh environmental conditions during the recovery period. Provide shade or windbreak if necessary.

With time and proper care, grapevines can recover from root shock and resume their normal growth and development. Patience, monitoring, and implementing appropriate management practices are key to supporting the recovery process.

C. Effects of Temperature and Humidity

Temperature and humidity play crucial roles in the establishment and early growth of newly planted grapevine seedlings. Here are the effects of temperature and humidity on newly planted grapevine stock:

Temperature:

Cold temperatures: Grapevine plants are sensitive to cold temperatures, especially during the initial stages of growth. Exposure to frost or prolonged cold spells can damage or kill the young plants. It is important to avoid planting grapevines too early in the spring when frost events are still possible. Providing frost protection measures, such as using wind machines, heaters, or protective coverings, can minimise the risks associated with cold temperatures.

Heat stress: High temperatures can also have detrimental effects on newly planted grapevines. Excessive heat can lead to desiccation of the young plants, wilting, and even death. Proper irrigation and shading techniques may be necessary during hot weather conditions to provide sufficient moisture and reduce heat stress.

Humidity:

High humidity: High humidity levels, combined with warm temperatures, can create favourable conditions for fungal diseases such as powdery mildew and downy mildew. These diseases can attack the leaves, shoots, and young grape clusters, compromising the health and development of the young vines. Proper spacing between plants, adequate airflow, and the application of fungicides, if necessary, can help manage fungal diseases in high humidity environments.

Low humidity: Low humidity levels can result in excessive evaporation and transpiration, leading to water stress for the newly planted grapevines. It is important to monitor soil moisture levels and provide appropriate irrigation to ensure that the plants receive sufficient water during periods of low humidity.

In general, newly planted grapevines require a balance of temperature and humidity to establish themselves successfully. It is important to consider the specific requirements of the grapevine variety, local climate conditions, and the stage of growth when managing temperature and humidity. Monitoring weather forecasts, implementing appropriate irrigation practices, and adopting preventive measures against extreme temperature and humidity conditions can help promote healthy growth and reduce stress on the newly planted grapevines. Consulting with local viticulture experts or agricultural extension services can provide valuable guidance on managing temperature and humidity for grapevine seedlings in your specific region.

D. Impact of Heavy Rain Showers

Heavy rain showers can have both positive and negative impacts on newly transplanted grapevine plants in the field. Heavy rain showers can saturate the soil, leading to waterlogged conditions around the grapevine plants. Excessive water saturation can deprive the roots of oxygen, leading to root suffocation and potential root rot diseases. This can negatively impact the growth and survival of the transplanted vines.

Figure 26Hail damage causing defoliation

In the case of hail, great damage can be done to the developing vines. Younger stems can break, and leaves can sometimes be completely defoliated. Intense rainfall can also cause soil erosion, particularly in sloped areas. The force of the raindrops can dislodge soil particles and wash them away, potentially exposing the roots of the plants. Soil erosion can lead to unstable root anchorage, nutrient loss, and reduced soil fertility.

Heavy rain showers can cause leaching of nutrients from the soil. This can result in nutrient deficiencies and affect the overall health and development of the transplanted plants. Soil compaction is another concern, especially in clay or heavy-textured soils. The impact of raindrops and the weight of waterlogged soil can compact the soil particles, reducing soil aeration and hindering root growth and penetration. Soil compaction restricts the movement of water, air, and nutrients, negatively affecting the establishment and growth of plants. Moisture on the plant foliage and in the soil provides favourable conditions for diseases such as downy mildew and botrytis to thrive. If the young plants are not effectively managed and preventive measures are not taken, the risk of disease outbreaks and damage to the plants may increase.

To mitigate the negative impacts of heavy rain showers on newly transplanted vines, the following measures can be taken:

  • Ensure proper field drainage systems to prevent waterlogging and excessive moisture accumulation around the plants. This can include grading the land, constructing contour channels, or installing subsurface drainage systems where necessary.
  • Apply organic mulch around the base of the plants to help reduce soil erosion, retain moisture, and promote aeration. Mulching also acts as a protective layer, preventing direct impact from heavy raindrops on the soil surface.
  • Proper spacing between the plants allows for better air circulation, reduces the risk of diseases, and minimises competition for nutrients and water.
  • If the risk of fungal diseases is high due to heavy rain showers, preventive fungicide applications may be necessary to protect the plants from infection. Consult with local experts for appropriate fungicide recommendations and application timings.
  • Incorporating organic matter into the soil prior to transplanting can improve soil structure, drainage, and nutrient-holding capacity. Cultivating the soil when it is dry enough can help alleviate compaction caused by heavy rainfall.

While heavy rain showers can pose challenges to newly transplanted vines, implementing proper management practices can help minimise the negative impacts and support the healthy establishment and growth of the vines. Monitoring the weather conditions and adjusting management practices accordingly is crucial in mitigating the effects of heavy rain on newly transplanted vines.

Establishment of Vines