Preventative and Remedial Measures in Predation Management

Preventive Measures

Fencing:

An example of a game fence which used both electric fencing and jackal-proof mesh at the bottom

1. Jackal-proof fencing.

Predators like the black-backed jackal and caracal can’t move around as freely when there are jackal-proof mesh fences around. These fences are essential for effective predator control. Putting up these fences is expensive, but if they are well-kept, they can keep predators away successfully. Even though caracals can jump over these fences, they should keep them from trying. They do not always deter animals like brown hyaenas, however, because these animals can bite through the fence, make a hole, and then go through the hole.

Guidelines for erecting a jackal-proof fence:

• Use mesh netting that is approved by SABS.
• Mesh size should be no more than 75 mm.
• Mesh netting should be at least 1 m high, preferably 1.2 m.
• Use rocks to keep the netting in place on the ground.
• Use neting to close off all possible entrances at gates.
• This type of fence restricts smaller mammals such as pangolins, tortoises and small antelope from moving through the fence. Use chains to make a few small openings or to cover existing holes that are used by tortoises and riverine rabbits to keep jackals from crawling through. Such holes are also used by small antelope such as duiker and steenbok. Some farmers put upright tyres in the fence every kilometre or so to make it easy for the small buck, pangolins, and tortoises to get through. Putting a chain in the tyre will temporarily stop jackals from using it as a passageway.
• Put rods on the bottom of the gates.
• Check fences often to find and fix any holes made by warthogs, pangolins and aardvarks.

2. Electric fencing.

Putting up electric fences can successfully keep predators away. A traditional livestock fence or jackal-proof fence can easily be electrified by adding a couple of electric wires (one near the ground and one on top of the fence). With the wires close to the ground, predators can’t dig under the fences to get to farms or camps, and the wires on top of the fence keep predators like caracals from climbing over the fence.

Advantages and disadvantages:

• Adding electric wires to an existing fence requires little capital investment and fairly low maintenance costs.
• Putting up an electric fence from scratch; however, is expensive. But if livestock losses are usually very high, it may be cheaper than potential continued losses.
• Patrolling is time-consuming and labour-intensive.
• Electric fences work well against all kinds of dangerous animals.
• The biggest disadvantage is that it can hurt smaller animals. When these animals touch the fences, they are caught and may die of shock or starvation.

Guidelines for erecting an electric fence:

• Place the earth conductor 10 cm above the ground and the first live conductor 20 cm above the ground.
• To keep animals like tortoises away from the electric conductors, put two wires close to the ground near the electric conductor to deter them.
• Put the top electric wire 15 cm higher than the regular fence.
• Put alarms on fences that will go off if an animal gets caught in them. Animals need to be set free right away.
• Charges on fences shouldn’t send a shock strong enough to kill.

Kraals:

Example of a cattle kraal used to keep cattle or livestock safe during vulnerable periods such as calving or lambing.
(Source: Fabian Plock)

People tend to think of the livestock kraal as an old way to take care of animals, but large and small livestock farmers are using it more and more to protect their animals from predators at night.

• The height of a wire fence should be at least 1.4 m.
• A stone kraal should be at least 1.6 m tall and should have barbed wire or electric wire on top.
• Hedges made of branches should be at least 1.6 m high and trimmed on the inside to prevent injuries to livestock.

Advantages and disadvantages:

• Animals can be kept safe from most predators and well cared for.
• Leopards can easily climb over fences and kraal walls and do a lot of damage, but strong kraals will keep them out.
• The land around kraals can no longer be used for grazing.
• Kraals speed up the spread of diseases like coccidiosis and make it easier for parasites to move from one animal to another. They can also cause fly and blowfly outbreaks.

Micro-camp system:

In areas of the country with a lot of livestock where a lot of animals can be kept in one enclosure, mobile micro-camp systems are used. These are small areas with electrified fences where lamb ewes and young lambs can graze.

• This grazing method needs to be managed every day, doesn’t require a lot of capital, and does a great job of keeping animals safe from predators.
• It doesn’t hurt the natural environment all that much.
• This method won’t work in large grazing areas with small livestock because there is a low grazing capacity, and the camps would have to be too big to be useful.
• Due to the nature of game farming, it cannot be used for game farming.

Deterrents:

Predators become habituated to deterrents if they are used frequently. Adopt preventative measures, but make sure they don’t cost too much and keep changing them because predators get used to them after three or four weeks. It is also wise to use more than one method.

1. Sound deterrents.

Use sound equipment that mimics the sounds of human activity especially in camps and kraals and ultrasonic sounds to irritate the predator’s hearing. Predators get scared when they hear human voices, music, or even farm sounds. Stop after six weeks and start again after a month. Only use ultrasonic sounds for four to five weeks at a time, and switch them out with other sounds. Ultrasonic sounds shouldn’t be used near owls and bats. Ultrasonic sounds make it hard for predators to hear, and they seem to be so disturbing that they will keep predators away from areas where they are played.

• Sounds can keep jackals, caracals, and brown hyaenas away, but leopards and spotted hyaenas are harder to scare off.
• Every night, change the sound and the place where the device is.

2. Light deterrents.

Both constant and pulsating light deterrents can be used the same way as sound deterrents. Place yellow, orange, and white lights in enclosures in a strategic manner. Use lights and sound deterrents for six weeks, then wait for one month before trying again.

• Use light deterrents with sound deterrents if possible, and move them to a different spot every night to get and maintain the best effect.
• To slightly change the environment, small solar lights can be set up on wires.

3. Scent deterrents.

These devices shouldn’t be used for more than six weeks at a time. Predator attacks can also be stopped by using tools that spread smells that may seem dangerous to predators over a wide area. This still needs to be proven to be effective, but the idea behind it is sensible.

They should be alternated with sound and light deterrents.

Collars:

Protective collars made of hard plastic (left); Example of deterrent collars as a bell collar being worn by the sheep in the herd (right).
(Source: Farm Show Magazine; Tom Marlowe)

 

1. Protective collars.

King collars (PVC or plastic) can help cut costs by using them only for a certain percentage of the lambs. Dead-stop collars made of wire mesh gives it a long lifespan.

For the collars to be effective against predators, they must be put on all small livestock. They should fit well and not restrict the animal’s breathing. Collars should always be changed to fit the animal as it grows. Collar all the sheep in the pen. Predators get used to this method, just like they do with other collars and bells. They might, for example, change how they catch and kill animals so that the buttocks are the targeted area instead of the neck. Take the collars off right away if the predator attacks a sheep anywhere but its neck.

2. Deterrent collars.

These collars can emit a sound, be bright in colour, and can secrete specific odours.

• The environment is not hurt by protective collars in any way.
• Switch between protective collars and collars that scare away predators to confuse them. Never use different kinds of collars on a farm at the same time.

 

• Bell collars.

The small tins and stones on these collars make them sound like bells when the animal wearing them moves. Since they give the impression that something is wrong, the predator will stay away from the animal as a potential meal.

• They are not bad for the environment in any way.
• Switch between different ways and techniques to scare off predators so they don’t get used to it.
• These collars are recommended for lambs in the herd. It will also be sufficient to fit only a percentage of the lambs in the herd with such a collar.

 

• Coloured collars.

Fluorescent material that only shines at night is used to make coloured collars. Because of how the colours look, they will make the predator feel uneasy.

• They are not bad for the environment in any way.
• The yellow and orange reflective stickers that are put on trailers work well.

 

• Scent collars.

These collars are made of simple materials like cotton and are soaked in different smells so that the herd smells strange. They confuse and scare predators, which makes them less likely to catch small livestock.

• They are not bad for the environment in any way.
• Use odoriferous collars that smell different from each other so they don’t all smell the same. Change the smell often and use other deterrents at the same time.

Deterrent collars like bell collars, coloured collars, and collars that smell bad, shouldn’t be worn for more than six weeks at a time, and they should be switched out with other kinds of collars.

3. Collars that make alarm.

• Farm Ranger collar.
• Celmax collars.

There must be one collar per herd. When the herd acts strangely, like when someone steals animals or a predator attacks, the Celmax alarm calls the farmer’s cell phone as a warning. The collar comes with a one-year warranty, and the battery will last about eight weeks. A charger is also included. It doesn’t work very well against caracals because they often attack sheep before they start moving. For this system to work, cell phone reception is a must.

• E-Shepherd collars.

For every 10 sheep, one collar is needed. Batteries can last anywhere from nine to twelve months. A collar holds the E-Shepherd unit in place. When someone tries to hurt a sheep, the electronic device goes off. The attack sets off the sound alarm that the device sends out. When the system is turned on, the two lights on the device flash quickly back and forth.

• Agri-Alert.

A collar with GPS and activity sensors is put on the animal. When there is a disturbance, the collar sends an SMS to a cell phone. Every two years, collars are replaced for free.

• Hotgroup.

Several functions are achieved by this system which include pasture utilisation, behavioural monitoring, and predation management. The science of mimicry forms the basis for the alarms which are triggered as soon as the animal displays abnormal behaviour.

Shepherds:

A young shepherd staying close to his flock to protect them from potential predators and dangers. (Source: Dragos Lucian Birtoiu)

Although shepherds are still being used today, it is a rather expensive management option. Having a shepherd present with a herd will most definitely deter all predators (except lions). Adding a dog along with the shepherd will be even more effective.

Disadvantages:

• Shepherds are only used during the day, whereas predation occurs mostly at night.
• This is only viable when livestock is kept in herds which are in small enclosures.
• In extensive livestock farming, the use of shepherds is not ideal or practical.

Guard animals:

A variety of different animals can be used to counter predators such as black-backed jackals, brown and spotted hyenas, caracals, cheetahs, and leopards within the game and livestock industries.

Different guard animals are incorporated into a livestock herd for protection against predators.
(Source: https://www.crookwellvet.com.au/)

Just like farm animals, these animals should get the care and attention they need. They should always be able to get food, water, and a protected place to live. Predators can be kept away from livestock with great success by using guard dogs, llamas, alpacas male ostriches, blesbuck rams, and donkeys.

• Anatolian dogs.

Anatolian guard dogs are effective in protecting both big and small livestock from predators, even lions.
(Source: Julia Wythes)

 

Anatolian shepherd dogs are very good at protecting both large and small livestock and game from almost all kinds of predators, including lions. Buy these dogs from breeders you can trust who will raise them on a farm with both small and large livestock from the time they were very young. On the farm, Anatolian dogs shouldn’t be around other dogs. Other dogs that have been taught to herd sheep and cattle can be used.

The breed’s large size and loud barking make it hard for most predators to move around and attack livestock and game when they are around.

• These dogs need to be kept under tight control from the owner because, without proper training and supervision, they can also kill livestock and small game.
• They also tend to attack and kill small, harmless predators.

• Herding dogs.

Herding dogs were used for many years to help protect the herd.
(Source: Diana Beth Miller)

 

Before Anatolian shepherd dogs became popular, Kalahari farmers had been using herding dogs (called bokhonde) for many years. These dogs can be any kind, but they were raised in a herd with a goat or sheep ewe. They are very good at keeping jackals and caracals away from herds of livestock. Like all dogs, they need a lot of care and training to keep them from stealing livestock or wild animals.

• Alpacas.

Alpacas are good at keeping predators away from the flock.
(Source: Reddit)

Like donkeys, these animals are very good at keeping predators away.

• Alpacas can live in dry places because they are from dry mountain deserts in South America. Since they only eat plants, they don’t need much care.
• Alpacas might be a better choice for livestock farmers who have a lot of land and want to raise a lot of animals.

• Male ostriches.

Male ostriches could be used to protect the flock from the black-backed jackal.  (Source: Image by <a href=”https://pixabay.com/users/xiserge-15871962/)

To some extent, these birds can be used to keep black-backed jackals away from lamb flocks during the day.

• Only black-backed jackals can be effectively deterred in this manner.
• It is important to use wild ostriches from nature reserves as ostriches which have been incubated from eggs will not work.

• Blesbuck rams.

Tame blesbok rams are quite effective in chasing away black-backed jackals.
(Source: Dries Visser Safaris)

These rams are quite effective in chasing black-backed jackals away from the herd during both day and night.

• Unfortunately, they are not effective against larger predators and caracals.
• Tame blesbok is a lot more aggressive than wild blesbok and therefore more successful in protecting the herd. Tame Blesbok is more aggressive towards humans as well.

• Donkeys.

A donkey can be effective in protecting livestock from predators like caracals and black-backed jackals.
(Source: ABC Upper Hunter: Amelia Bernasconi)

They are very effective in chasing the caracal and black-backed jackal out of the camps.

• Effective in camps with adult livestock and game.
• If they are used with sheep or boer goats, they will have to be taken away when the lambs are born because they tend to kick the lambs when they are drinking, hurting or killing them.

 

• Modern Shepherd.

The Modern Shepherd uses sound and smell to keep predators away from livestock. A built-in computer program controls the release of strong chemicals that irritate the senses of smell and taste and keep predators away. At night, it keeps spraying out a fine mist. Because of this, the smell is always in the camp. The bottle containing the scent should be changed every month. There are quite a few units needed, but if only two are used, they should pay attention to the flock of lambs. Every minute, the Shepherd makes an almost inaudible sound with a very high frequency that is very annoying to predators. When a predator comes within 1 km of the Shepherd, the device makes them feel uncomfortable or even in pain.

Remedial Measures

These measures are aimed at targeting specific individuals known to cause havoc. Many times, the problem animals are merely chased to a neighbouring farm simply transposing the problem to someone else. Responsible use of the methods is extremely important to maintain the good name of the agricultural industry.

Shooting:

Selective removal of the problem animals by a trained professional can be effective in controlling the damage.
(Source: African Sky Hunting)

 

It is important to start looking for the individual who caused the damage right away after predation. When livestock or game is killed by a black-backed jackal or a caracal, action should be taken within one day. If someone waits too long, the individual who committed it will get away, and other predators, not necessarily the ones who did it, can be killed.

If the hunter is experienced and knows what they are doing, shooting predators that cause damage is one of the most selective ways to control them from an ecological point of view. Depending on how it is used, this method can be very controversial.

• Target the area where predation took place.
• Use only experienced hunters who have been trained to kill animals that cause damage. Poor shooting only makes the problem worse because animals that have been hurt or that have been shot at but not hit will become shy and hard to control.
• Before the hunter does anything, he or she should figure out which species is responsible for the damage.
• Calling gear should only be used by experienced hunters. It takes a lot of skill to use these devices correctly so that predators don’t think the calls are fake. Hunters who are inexperienced at hunting predators will do more harm than good.
• At night, only red searchlights should be used. Use a silencer on the gun.
• Do not shoot bat-eared foxes, aardwolves, or African wild cats.

Technology is advanced in such a manner that it is greatly beneficial. Thermal night scopes make hunting much easier.
(Source: Pulsar Axion Hunting)

 

A red-filtered light does not scare away animals at night when hunting.
(Source: Coyote Light)

 

Hunting from a helicopter:

Hunting from a helicopter should be done by trained professionals and in a sustainable manner.
(Source: JeriLynn Thorpe)

A very expensive control method, especially if few predators are present. This method is good for places that are hard to get to on foot or by car. Talk to the right authorities about the permits you need.

• It’s best to fly for three hours early in the morning and for one or two hours before sunset.
• Only trained people with the right permits and the ability to spot predators from the air should be allowed to shoot from a helicopter or a microlight aircraft.

Hunting with dogs:

A method used extensively to track predators. Dogs must never kill or have physical contact with predators. This manner can either be highly effective and used selectively, or it can be destructive and harm the environment and the small mammal population when not managed firmly.

Search and find:

The dogs find the animal after following its tracks. Then, the predator is killed. Use trained dogs that can find specific types of animals. The Animal Protection Act (Act 71 of 1962) says that dogs can’t be used to kill the predator.

• Keep the dogs on leashes until you can see the animal you want them to hunt, and then let them go after it.
• Take good care of the dogs so they don’t go after the game because they are hungry.

Most of the time, they don’t have much of an effect on the natural environment because they can’t attack and kill the predators themselves.

Tracking the predator on horseback:

Horsemen with trained dogs follow the tracks of the predator and chase it into places it can hide, like an aardvark hole.

• This is a very effective and selective method since the dogs don’t hurt any other components of nature.
• It works well in the sandy parts of the Kalahari, in particular.

Foothold traps:

Foothold trap with offset jaws, adjustable trigger plate and swivel attaching the chain to the trap.
(Source: Quinette Kruger)

Traps are controversial because, in the hands of people who aren’t careful and don’t know what they’re doing, the use of traps can be inhumane, causing unnecessary suffering to the animal. Only people who have been trained can set legal traps, which should have trigger plates that can be adjusted.

• The trap should have offset (there should be a gap of at least 5 mm between the jaws to prevent breaking any bones when the trap snaps shut). Traps with jaws lined with rubber further reduces the chances of injury. It will still hold the animal tightly, but it won’t hurt it or break its skin or leg. It also makes it easier to free animals that aren’t meant to be caught. If such an animal sets off the trap and is caught, it can be set free without injury. Check the traps’ settings often.
• Attach an anchor to the trap so the animal can’t run away with it.
• Add one or more swivels to the chain so the animal doesn’t get tangled up in the chain and hurt its limbs.
• It shouldn’t be put where animals usually walk, on roads next to fences or watering holes, or on roads that animals use to get to these places. Instead, set traps where the animals you want to catch can set them off when they enter an area where predation usually happens.
• At least once a day, traps should be checked. Check the traps first thing in the morning so the animal doesn’t get stuck for more than a few hours.
• Use appropriate bait. For example, it doesn’t make sense to use venison as bait if the problem is animals eating small animals.

Cage traps:

Walk-in cage traps work very well for catching caracals, cheetahs, leopards, brown hyenas, otters, Cape foxes, and African wild cats. All these kinds of animals can be caught and moved without killing them. Note that walk-in cage traps are not very effective for catching black-backed jackals. To catch different species, you need to use different techniques and bait.

Walk-in cage traps for specific animals.
(Source: Chris Daly)

Cage traps should be set up so that they are in the shade during the hottest part of the day, and they should be checked at least once a day. Different species have different requirements. Cheetahs and leopards, which have long tails, can get hurt when their tails get in the way of trapdoors. Use a sponge or rubber to cover the door to stop these injuries. Poachers should not be able to get their hands on traps that haven’t been used.

If you don’t want to let a caracal go, kill it as humanely as possible when you catch it. The fastest and most effective way to kill the animal is with a single shot to the head from a gun with a medium calibre.

When a leopard is caught, put a thick piece of canvas over it to keep it calm. Before the animal is moved, a veterinarian should sedate it to keep it from getting hurt in the trap.

When a cheetah is caught, the cage should be covered while the animal is being moved. Cheetahs may not be killed. Instead, they must be moved and set free somewhere else.

Brown hyaenas caught in a cage trap should not be killed. Instead, they should be moved to a new home. To keep the animal calm, cover the cage. It is best to have a vet give the animal medicine before transporting it.

Otters that are caught should not be killed. Instead, they should be moved to a different area.

Before catching African wild cats or Cape foxes, landowners should make sure they have the right permits from the province’s nature conservation office. Young lambs will be hunted by Cape foxes and African wild cats. But it doesn’t make sense to kill these small predators because they don’t do much damage and help keep the ecosystem in balance.

If a female of any species is caught while she is nursing her young, every effort should be made to find the babies. They should be taken to a registered rehabilitation centre where they can be raised and eventually set free.

Additional measures:

When the trap gates fall on the long tails of animals like leopards and cheetahs, it can hurt them very badly. Put a thick piece of sponge on the bottom of the trap gate to stop this from happening. Rubber cushions can be put under the gates so that the gates don’t hit the floor when they fall. When valuable animals need to be caught, these steps make the use of cage traps more humane.

Sedate and transport:

When transporting certain wild animals, sedation is advised.
(Source: Christopher Chung)

This method mostly only works for lions and, to a lesser extent, leopards. Large pieces of bait, like full carcasses, are given drugs to make them sleepy, and then the carcasses are put where the predators are. When the predators eat the dead animal, they are sedated so they can be loaded onto trucks and moved. A vet must do this because the whole process needs to be watched all the time to make sure the animals are calm enough and that their normal body functions are working.

Use of poison:

1. Poison as bait.

In South Africa, it is against the law. Under the Fertiliser, Farm Feeds, Agricultural Remedies, and Stock Remedies Act (Act 36 of 1947), Regulation No. R1716 of July 26, 1991, it is illegal to use pesticides for anything other than what is written on the labels. No pesticides are approved for killing predators, so they can’t be used for this.

According to Regulation No. R181 of February 7, 2003, the Act even makes it illegal to buy, sell, use, or give away remedies for agriculture or livestock in any container other than the original container with the original label. If someone buys an agricultural or livestock remedy and then steals it (like poachers do), gives it away, sells it, or uses it without the original container and label, they have broken the law.

Rarely is toxic bait made for a specific animal, and large numbers of non-targeted species, like raptors and vultures, get sick from it. The only poison that may be legally used to kill predators, is Compound 1080 (sodium mono-fluoroacetate). It may also only be used in toxic collars.

2. Toxic collars.

Eddie Steenkamp’s poison collar works in conjunction with his nail collar. It has pouches containing sodium monofluoroacetate (1080), which kills the predator without causing secondary poisoning.
(Source: Eddie Steenkamp)

Toxic collars can be used selectively to get rid of the black-backed jackal and the caracal. No other pesticide may be used in these collars. The Hazardous Substances Act says that only people with the right licences can fill and distribute them (Act 15 of 1973). They are only used to keep black-backed jackals and caracals away from small livestock farms when other methods don’t work. Several young lambs with toxic collars can be put with adult sheep in an enclosure where predation happens. The poisonous collars will only kill animals that eat sheep and goats. Any animal that was killed by poison should be buried deep or burned to keep other animals from getting secondary poisoning.

Follow the following link to an article for more reading on the impact of the various methods of getting rid of “problem animals” on other wild animals, including the significant mortality of non-target species that are not necessarily a threat to farmers’ livestock, as well as the indiscriminate capture of wild animals that often results in a slow and painful death.

Prevention is the Cure. Proceedings of a workshop on holistic management of human-wildlife conflict in the agricultural sector of South Africa.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271765368_Prevention_is_the_Cure_Proceedings_of_a_workshop_on_holistic_management_of_human-wildlife_conflict_in_the_agricultural_sector_of_South_Africa

Integrated Predation Management

What is Integrated Predation Management?

Predators and people who own livestock have been at odds for as long as people have been raising livestock, and this is likely to continue for a long time. This is why it is so important to have a well-thought-out herd management programme and grazing system, as well as continuous and sustainable predation management.

Successful management of predation can be broken down into three steps:

• Management all year long.
• Management before lambing.
• Management during and after lambing.

Continuous management

The farm should always be on the lookout for dangerous animals. It’s important to know the farm inside and out, as well as the places where predators tend to hang out. Most of the time, this constant monitoring is focused on the life cycles of the different predators. For example, it is very important to find the black-backed jackal’s nesting holes and take care of them in a professional way, especially in August. Another important time of year is February when young jackals from outside the farm’s borders are looking for a new home. During these times, especially, the farmer should plan his time well to control and manage predators. In other words, there should be a structured predation management programme in place.

Management before lambing

When it comes to animals that cause damage, small livestock farmers don’t always know how important it is to take precautions. A lot of money and time goes into managing production, like making sure rams are fertile, getting ewes to mate, and taking care of ewes while they are giving birth. As important as getting the animals ready is getting the lambing camps ready, where pressure must be put on how and how many predators move around. Farmers have to make sure that there is enough food and water for the animals in lambing camps, and they also have to make sure that there are no black-backed jackals or caracals in the lambing camps or the areas around them.

During lambing, the smell of afterbirth and fresh blood fills the air at night. Predators can’t help but check this out because it’s in their nature to do so. It is best to close off these parts of the farm with fences or wires that jackals can’t get through. But these two preventive measures cost a lot of money.

So-called “bush cameras” can be used to keep an eye on lambing camps. The cameras should be put in key spots in the lambing camps six weeks before the ewes start to give birth (at least four cameras per 1 000 ha). The more cameras you have, the better. It is especially important to watch the water points. Place bait right in front of each camera, and every third day, make the smell stronger. Download the pictures often to find out what animals come to the bait points. Getting ready for lambing camps and being proactive are the first steps to successfully managing lamb losses. If you wait until the first lamb is caught, it’s too late.

Management during and after lambing

If the farmer didn’t do anything during the first two management periods, he usually finds out with shock that he needs to do something now. At this point, it will be clear how much money has been lost. Farmers will start to worry, lose hope, and often pay anything to get rid of the predators. They want things to happen right away and show results, and most of the time they use methods of management that are dangerous. Don’t lose your perspective and try to poison the predators. That’s not an option!

If predation management was not applied before the lambing season, this may very well lead to severe losses during the lambing season.
(Source: https://lochlomondlivestock.com/)

It is important to get rid of the animals that were responsible for the damage. Most people use and like the call-and-shoot method. You could also use non-lethal methods like lights, sounds, and smells to scare people away. Keep in mind that these methods of management should be changed, or else predators will quickly figure out how to get around them. It’s best not to use these methods in the same place for more than three weeks in a row.

By changing the methods, problem animals will still be a little scared and uncertain and therefore avoid the area. At this point, you can use more natural methods like lamas, alpacas, donkeys, and sheepdogs. They take care of and protect the animals. Depending on the size and shape of the camps on the farm, these methods work very well. These animals must be able to see both the animals they are supposed to protect and the predators who are trying to kill them.

Follow a good management plan with these methods and keep an eye on the animals at all times. A livestock farmer should always know exactly what the problem is, know the animals that are causing the damage, know the layout of his or her farm and use good judgement when deciding how to deal with the problem. The money spent must also be reasonable. Set up a good programme for managing predation that will keep going. Don’t take care of the predators only when and after the lambs are born. Change the way you think and start taking action to deal with predation before it has become a problem.

Veld, small game, and livestock management

Black-backed jackal photographed in the Central Karoo.
(Source: Houdin & Palanque)

Veld management:

Managing veld or grazing is important for any livestock farmer. It is not good to graze veld with the greatest number of animals per unit because this will put too much pressure on the veld and make it hard for the animals to grow as effectively as they could. For the best growth, there should be fewer animals on the veld than usual. This will make sure that the breeding stock is ready for the market much sooner and can be sold. A management system like this makes it less likely that sheep and goats will be eaten by predators.

Small-game management:

Jackals and caracals catch the smallest game like hunting birds, small antelope, hyraxes, rabbits, and springhares. If there aren’t enough small animals to eat, predators will focus more on small livestock. Because of this, it is best to protect small game at all costs and not hunt them, since they protect livestock from being eaten.

Livestock management:

People are right to say that letting ewes have lambs all year long makes it easier for black-backed jackals and caracals to eat lambs since lambs are available all the time. Producers who keep lambing periods to a few weeks or less find that there are more predation incidents during lambing periods and that this can be handled much better because of this. This is, of course, only true for lambs and not for animals that are already grown up. A short time for lambing means a lot of work, but then the focus is mostly on making sure the lambs are born healthy and stopping predators from eating them.