At this point, you are well aware of what research is and what it entails. The part that becomes interesting ois learning how to prepare your research proposal or study, and then how to write a study of the resulting research as well as experiments.
Any academic writing begins with research and understanding what the need for a research is. Identifying a problem and trying to solve it is the beginning of your quest to find answers.
The beginning of writing academic research
Mentioned below are the steps to the begining of your academic content writing:
1. Choosing a topic
Broadening on an idea and making sure that the idea takes shape. Choosing a topic includes the brainstorming of an idea and formulkating a question that needs to be answered from that specific idea.
2. Preaparing to write (using a preffered academic writing style)
Academic writing refers to a particular style of expression that researchers and scholars use to define the boundaries of their study and the areas of expertise on the matter. Characteristics of academic writing include a formal tone, use of the third-person rather than first-person perspective (usually), a clear focus on the research problem under investigation, and precise word choice. Like the specialist languages adopted in other professions such as law, academic writing is designed to convey agreed meaning about complex ideas for a group of scholarly experts
3. Writing an abstract (executive summary)
An abstract basically summarizes, usually in one page of 300 words or less, the major aspects of the entire paper in a prescribed sequence that includes:
a) the overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s) you investigated;
b) the basic design of the study;
c) major findings or trends found as a result of your analysis; and,
d) a brief summary of your interpretations and conclusions.
4. The introduction to your study/research
The introduction in your research papar/study report serves the purpose of leading the reader from a general subject area to a particular field of research. It establishes the context of the research being conducted by
a) summarizing current understanding and background information about the topic,
b) stating the purpose of the work in the form of the hypothesis, question, or research problem,
c) briefly explaining your rationale, methodological approach, highlighting the potential outcomes your study can reveal, and describing the remaining structure of the paper.
5. The literature review (of your read academic sources)
A literature review surveys scholarly articles, books and other sources relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, providing a description, summary, and critical evaluation of these works. Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you have explored while researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your research fits into the larger field of study.
6. The methodology (how you’re going to conduct your study)
The methods section of a research paper provides the information by which a study’s validity is judged. The method section answers two main questions:
a) How was the data collected or generated?
b) How was it analyzed?
The writing should be direct and precise and written in the past tense.
Note that in order to submit your academic writing as a proposal for research (aka thesis or research proposal) to either prove or explore possible solutions, the steps from number 1 to 6 are very important. As the writer (or researcher), your aim is to find soltutions and explore other ways to look at a proposed problem.
This is the stage when you will start hearing of evaluation, supervision, re-looking at your writing and presenting your hypothesis to a panel of other academics and professors. Your research supervisor will then help you in your quest to prove your hypothesis or not. This in between stage will also include the designing of experiments, surveys and how you are going to collect the data to support your research.
7. The results (preapring a report on your studies and what the outcome was)
The results section of the research paper is where you report the findings of your study based upon the information gathered as a result of the methodology and experiments you applied. The results section should simply state the findings, without bias or interpretation, and arranged in a logical sequence. The results section should always be written in the past tense. A section describing results [a.k.a., “findings”] is particularly necessary if your paper includes data generated from your own research.
8. Th discussion of your study
The purpose of the discussion is to interpret and describe the significance of your findings in light of what was already known about the research problem being investigated, and to explain any new understanding or fresh insights about the problem after you’ve taken the findings into consideration. The discussion will always connect to the introduction by way of the research questions or hypotheses you posed and the literature you reviewed, but it does not simply repeat or rearrange the introduction; the discussion should always explain how your study has moved the reader’s understanding of the research problem forward from where you left them at the end of the introduction
9. The conclusion
The conclusion is intended to help the reader understand why your research should matter to them after they have finished reading the paper. A conclusion is not merely a summary of your points or a re-statement of your research problem but a synthesis of key points. For most essays, one well-developed paragraph is sufficient for a conclusion, although in some cases, a two-or-three paragraph conclusion may be required. Including your list of references will be to your benefit. It will either make or break your academic career.
10. Proof reading and publishing your findings.
Proofreading is the act of searching for errors before you hand in the your final research paper. Errors can be both grammatical and typographical in nature, but proofreading can also be used to identify problems with the flow of your paper [i.e., the logical sequence of thoughts and ideas] and to find any word processing errors [e.g., different font types, indented paragraphs, line spacing, etc.].
How to write a study report, in case of punishing or other purposes
by Mrs Jewell G Fessenden; Ward F Porter
If research findings are to be used, they must be organised and made available in understandable and appropriate forms. In some cases a complete written report is not required. If the results of a study are to be used only by the investigator, or a few people, there may be no need for a report other than analysis tables. Examples of this may include a summary of personnel ratings or a determination of interests of a specific group with reference to conferences, seminars and related activities.
In this case there may be no distribution of written materials. In general, however, if research results are to be used by many people, a written report will be necessary. Sometimes when the study is an important one, a single report will not do justice to the findings. In this case, a series of reports, aimed at different audiences, may need to be prepared. The principles of presenting findings would apply almost equally to both the oral and written presentations.
Data are collected to answer questions. When interpreted, they supply answers to those questions. The report states the questions, outlines the method of collection and analysis of the data, and explains the answers obtained within the limitations of the study objectives and findings.
In preparing study reports, there are many factors to be considered. This chapter is concerned with some of the more important considerations. Among these, we will discuss the anticipated audience, the report outline, contents and organisation, writing styles, and methods of presenting study data. In addition to these, one would also need to consider available resources, pertinent to preparing and publishing reports. These aspects of report writing will be discussed under the three major headings of planning, style of writing, and ways of presenting data.
PLANNING A STUDY REPORT
The audience
Any writer who hopes to do an effective report should have some idea of his probable audience. Some understanding of its needs, interests and background will help him decide which points to stress in his presentation. With this understanding, he will be in a better position to know when to slow down and explain things; he will know which details to mention briefly and which ones to spell out; he will know the proper degree of familiarity to use in his writing style.
For our present purposes, we may conceive of three types of audiences (readers or users) for extension study reports: (1) other research people; (2) all professional extension workers and other educational personnel in related fields; (3) the lay audience. In any one of these categories there may be several subclasses. For example, the lay audience as thought of in this chapter may consist of rural, urban, farm, nonfarm or other people not especially concerned with professional extension work.
If a report is prepared for other research people, it is important to include the following:
- Table of contents.
- Summary statement of findings.
- Specific purposes and study objectives.
- Significance of the study. This should include reasons for undertaking the project and its meaning to the audience concerned.
- Procedures used in the study. This might involve a complete discussion of: population and sampling; methods of data collection – mail, personal interview, telephone or combinations of these methods, record forms used; selection and training of interviewers; the dates on which field data were collected; and rate of responses.
- Statistical methods and techniques used in the tabulation, analysis and interpretation of the data.
- Results obtained in relation to the objectives of the study as well as other findings of a ‘byproduct’ nature.
- Implications of the findings in relation to the purposes of the specific study or research project. This may be less important for research persons than for the other audiences previously mentioned.
- Identification, including the names of people responsible for planning and conducting the study, date and place of publication, acknowledgments.
- Reproduction of survey schedules or questionnaires.
The order in which these phases of the report are presented is sometimes determined by the author. In other instances the institution or agency sponsoring the study makes the decision.
If the audience is expected to be professional extension and other educational leaders, certain adaptations of the above content, organisation and format of the report may need to be made. For this group, details as to statistical procedures, sampling techniques and other methods used in conducting the study may be omitted or at least discussed only briefly. It is important to report the findings in such a way that the extension worker can see their application to his own programme. This may be the improvement of a method, planning procedures, or programme content.
For the lay audience, a research report needs to be concise, non-technical, easy to ready, and may contain only major findings from the study. Raising questions relating to the significance of the research for the particular audience may make a report more personal, appealing, and, therefore, meaningful.
The above discussion implies that there may be more than one report prepared to meet the needs of various audiences. In some cases there may be several reports. For example, there may be a very complete, detailed and highly technical report for the audience of research personnel, a report for professional extension workers containing the major findings and implications with less emphasis on research procedures and technical details, and, finally, a relatively simple and brief report for lay people highlighting the major findings in a popular style.
It is also appropriate to think of a highly comprehensive study being reported in several specialised ‘editions’. For example, a survey may show certain data on topics of interest to different specialists.
Resources
Some other factors to be considered in planning a research report include resources available to the researcher and the institution or agency involved. Among these are time, finances, facilities and personnel.
Time is of importance from at least two standpoints: that of time available to prepare the report, and the urgency in terms of timeliness and use of the findings. Adequate time should be made available for the preparation of the research report. It is wasteful of time and money to make an investigation without adequately reporting the results.
The money, facilities and skills available for writing and illustrating will influence the type, number and scope of the research reports. This should also be taken into account when the research project of evaluation is planned.
It is suggested that the author of a report work very closely with the editorial staff in charge of publications, both in planning and writing a report. Editors can be of invaluable help in selection of visuals, improving readability, and effective presentation.
WRITING A STUDY REPORT
The Report Outline
“In planning the report, try to think through the story that you want to tell your readers; then write that story in your own words. Report writing is not too different from other writing.” 2 Effective writing is a tool that helps to insure understanding and use of study findings.
Most writers who contemplate writing a report find it helpful to have some sort of outline to work with. It will assure order in the finished work and it will help hold down repetition and guard against omissions. Such an outline need not be spelled out in compete detail and does not always have to be written, but the various points to be included should be given careful thought before actual writing is started.
Organisation and Content
Select only the facts that are important and significant for the various audiences for whom the report is being written. It is helpful to arrange facts in logical order so that they may be easily followed by the reader. The use of subheads helps to call attention to points that need to be emphasised and facilitates readability.
Findings should be reported in terms of the study objectives. Wherever results are not conclusive, some explanation should be made. It is also important that an objective approach be maintained in interpreting the findings. Where the writer is expressing a value judgment, this should be made apparent. For example, a writer may state that the rate of adoption of a practice was ‘high’ when 25 percent of the respondents reported use of the practice. In reality 25 percent may or may not be a ‘high’ rate, depending on the circumstances or previously established standards.
There are several important considerations regarding the organisation and content of a study report.
- Title – All reports should start off with a title, either on a separate page or at the head of the article. In the more popular types of report it should be short and designed to attract attention yet give some clue to contents; in the more formal reports it can be longer and should give a more positive clue to the contents.
Most of the time the author’s name appears immediately after the title or somewhere on the title page.Sometimes his name does not appear on the more popular types of report and his agency is designated as the author.
- Summary Statement of Study – An increasingly popular practice in report writing is to place a summary of the report in the fore part of the publication. It may come before or after the table of contents and list of charts, figures and tables, but it always precedes the body of the report. It is not designed to take the place of the chapter on conclusions which continues to be placed at the end. Rather, it pulls together the highlights of the entire report and presents them so that: (1) the mildly interested reader can get the main idea without reading further; and (2) the undecided reader can get enough information to decide whether or not to read the complete report.
- Table of Contents – Quite often the table of contents is omitted from short reports and those of intermediate length which are written for the lay audience. Any of the longer reports, regardless of the intended audience, need a table of contents to speedup reference or to locate chapters or sections in which the reader may be most interested. In the very detailed report, the table of contents may list subtitles as well as chapter and section titles.
- Study Objectives and Procedures – Any report, whether it is a professional monograph, a graduate student thesis, a journal article or note, a miscellaneous publication, or a leaflet, requires an introductory section of some sort.
One of the items to be covered in such a section is a statement of the objectives or purposes of the study.This statement should also contain the reasons why the objectives were considered important, and the probable use that could be made of the findings of the study.
Somewhere in the introductory section there should be some comments on how the study was made.The amount of space to devote to this will depend in large part on the intended audience.We would not expect certain lay people to be interested in all of the details, although it is a good idea to give them some notion of where the study was made, who was involved, and procedures used in collecting the information.
The educators would want a little more background information to aid them in assessing the merits of the study.
The details on procedures will be of major interest to other researchers.They will want to know your population and the sampling plan. They will want to know what kind of data collecting instrument we used, and they would like to find a copy of each in the appendix section.They will expect to find some notes identifying the research team and what training or conditioning was provided for them. They will be interested in details like the inclusive dates of the field work, any special techniques that were used during the field work phase, the response rate, and so on.
- Findings – When you have completed your introductory section, you start reporting your findings, sometimes with the help of tables, charts, graphs and figures, or reference to appropriate appendix items.
You should report your results or findings in terms of your study objectives and should present the evidence both for and against your hypotheses.When you feel you should express a personal opinion, you should say so.Whenever results are not conclusive, some explanation should be made.You should also feel obligated to mention any findings of a byproduct nature which you consider to be contributions to knowledge or understanding anywhere in the general area of your study.The limitations of the study should also be pointed out, in all fairness to the reader.
- Implications – After you have presented your findings, you have an obligation to make some comments as to what the findings mean. At this point it is extremely important to involve subject matter specialists in interpreting the findings and in suggesting implications. Now is the occasion for suggesting related topics for future research and for pointing out facets of your own study which should be examined more closely, possibly with new data.
The need to include implications in your report is most urgent when you are writing for your law audience.This audience is least likely to recognise the possibilities of your findings, partly because of their less thorough knowledge of the subject, but also because of less familiarity with dealing in cause and effect relationships.
Most members of your educator audience will also need some assistance with implications.In addition to your implications, they will draw t heir own after they have considered the report in relation to their own experiences.Because they do this, you have the additional responsibility of being certain you make no implications which your data do not justify.
- Documentation – Most reports of research require a certain amount of substantiation from sources other than the research data at hand. Sometimes, in your report, you may want to make comparisons of your results with those obtained from other sources. These other sources should be identified by footnotes or notes at the end of the chapter or section. All of the sources may be assembled in a bibliography to accompany the report, either as part of or prior to the appendix.
The bibliography and footnotes frequently are omitted from reports for the law audience but they should be in reports intended for educators and researchers.
- Appendix – This section serves as the catchall for items which had to be omitted from the body of the report for one reason or another but which were important enough to be included with the report. Sometimes side issues are elaborated on in separate appendix notes. This is where you put your working tables which are not needed for supporting the test but which might be of considerable interest to some of your readers.
Here you can elaborate on your sampling plan or demonstrate how to derive the statistical formulae you employed.You can include extra maps, charts, record forms used in data collecting, and any devices you may have worked up as a result of your findings.
Although used extensively in scientific research reporting, appendix sections are not common in popular reports.
Style of Writing
Effective writing is a tool that helps assure both understanding and use of study findings. Mrs Cowing says that the specialist cannot hope to write ‘best-seller’ articles while reporting research findings, but he can make his report more readable. She offers this advice:
“You technical writers cannot assume that lay leaders will be interested in your technical information. You have to identify your technical subject with their interests; let them know it will pay them to read it. Slant your writings to their interests as well as to their needs. Pack your writing with appeal; tell them it’s ‘good-to-eat’ as well as ‘good-for-you’. Camouflage what you think they ought to read with what they want to read.” 3
Although there are occasions in extension research reporting when ‘professional’ writing styles are in order, most of the writing we do in Extension will be on the ‘popular’ side. For this reason, we will devote our remarks to ways of improving our writing style to make it more appealing to our educators and lay audiences.
Some characteristics of effective popular writing are to: (1) use the personal approach; (2) use short sentences whenever possible; (3) use the simplest word that will carry your intended meaning, and be sure a long or technical word is understood when you have to use it; (4) confine your remarks to the main facts, and keep them flowing in a logical order; (5) hold down the number of qualifying statements, statistical references and parenthetical comments; (6) use the simplest illustrations or examples that will accomplish your purpose; and (7) use present tense and active verbs.
Most of us object to rewriting, but that is the best way to improve the readability of our writing efforts. If popular writing does not come naturally to you, just write your report to include all the points you want to make, using whatever style you like. Then go back over it and break up those long paragraphs into shorter ones containing a single idea.
Go through again and change from the less personal to the more personal pronouns. Next, substitute shorter words for as many of the long words as you can. When you must use technical words, define each one the first time it appears. Take a second look at any sentence over three typewritten lines long. See if you can make it shorter, or rewrite it as several short sentences.
You may have to go back and regroup some of your paragraphs and this may call for some different transition phrases or sentences. Work in a few short subheadings and see if any words or phrases in sentences need underlining for emphasis. Type up a clean copy, and see how easy it is to read and understand!
METHODS OF PRESENTING DATA
There are several things in addition to writing style that an author must consider while preparing his report. None of our audiences would be pleased with a report consisting of narrative description only. They like the presentation to contain more than the printed word. We will discuss some of the more favoured ways of presenting research data.
Narrative description
The most common form of presentation, either alone or supplemented by other forms, is the narrative report of findings, accompanied by whatever conclusions, implications and recommendations the author cares to make. The narrative statement alone can become very boring, but it is appreciated by those who do not care to puzzle through tables or charts.
Tables
We use tables to bring together in rows and columns larger amounts of data than we would care to describe in words. We are still at liberty to make whatever comments we want to about the data, but we do not have to include so much detail when we provide tables containing all relevant data. Large tables, like Table I, generally are assigned to the appendix section; smaller ones, like the next two, are more apt to follow along with the narrative development of the report.
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The second table is one designed to illustrate a few simple comparisons. It may not involve all respondents and may not exhaust the information provided by a single question, but it presents the data to support the narrative at the particular point in the report. It requires a title, headings and a few guidelines, but may not have subheadings or involved breakdowns in the stub.
The third table is a kind which is used quite often to point up some simple relationship. This kind is included in the text, does not carry a number or title, and usually contains only one column of figures.
Reading and studying 20%
Sewing 12%
Family recreational activities 10%
Laundry Work 42%
Graphs and Charts
There are many kinds of charts, graphs, maps, sketches and diagrams that can be used to present data. Compared with tabular methods, graphs and charts have some advantages as well as limitations. They are more likely to attract attention and impress the facts upon the minds of the readers. They are also more limited as to the quantity of data that can be presented effectively. A single chart or graph should not be complicated, or attempt to present too many facts which might be confusing. Unlike tables, graphic methods can usually show only approximate values.
Line charts consist of broken or curved lines that are used to picture a time series or trend and frequency distributions. Care must be used in selecting the intervals on both the horizontal axis (baseline) and the vertical axis. False visual impressions can be created by using intervals that are either too broad or too narrow for the data in question. Curves or line charts are not appropriate where the items or units represented are discreet or where it is incorrect to read off values that lie between the intervals on the baseline. In such a case, a bar chart is to be preferred.
Bar charts are made up of horizontal or vertical bars and are used mostly for comparing magnitudes. The difference in length of bars on a chart is, for most people, easier to see than the difference between numerical figures. Bars are also used advantageously for showing component parts, that is, the parts of a total.
Pie charts have a wide appeal and are particularly effective in indicating the whole and component parts. Greater accuracy in reading pie charts is insured if numerals are written on the various parts of the graph.
Pictorial charts lend variety and attract attention. However, they should not be used to show too many ideas at once. The main rule to remember is that an increase in magnitude is indicated by an increase in the number of characters and not by an increase in the size of the pictures or symbols! Symbols should be self-explanatory.
Summary
Research has little value if it is never pulled together into some form of report. Although an oral report may suffice for some occasions, we generally think of the written report when we think of reporting. To guide the author in preparing the report, we mention several things which can simplify and give direction to his efforts.
The first point to consider is the probable or intended audience. We identify three major classes of audience, the researcher, educator and lay audience, and give some of the core characteristics of each.
The next item we consider is the outline and organisation of the report. Its major elements are the title, summary statement, tables of contents; objectives and procedures; findings; implications; documentation; and appendix.
In our discussion of style in writing the report, we stress the techniques for achieving easier and more readable manuscripts. Most of these involve simplicity, brevity and organisation, and are most efficiently accomplished by conscientious rewriting with the objectives of effective popular writing clearly before us.
Our final topic is methods of presenting data. We suggest the use of and briefly describe illustrative materials, such as tables, charts, maps, graphs and pictures.
In the final analysis, decisions on writing style and methods of presentation must depend on the intended purposes of the report and on its prospective readers. A report must tell the story effectively, but this is not enough. There must be a personal appeal that makes the reader say to himself, “This report has something in it for me”.
References
- Clark, RM and Norford, C. Materials and Techniques for Making Charts and Graphs in Teaching Agriculture. East Lansing, Vocational Educational Department, School of Education, Michigan State University, 1954
- Cowing, AG. Let’s Write Easy Reading. US Dept of Agr Fed Ext Serv Mimeo, 1111 (11-47) Washington DC, 1947
- Cowing, AG. How to Communicate Ideas in Words – Plan, Write and Trim. Unpublished talk given at the Clear Writing Workshop, held by the Soil Conservation Service, US Dept of Agr, Washington DC, May, 1956
- Flesch, R. “How to Say it with Statistics”. Reprinted from Printer’s Ink by Division of Extension Research and Training, Fed Ext Serv, US Dept of Agr, Mimeo 248 (3-51)
- Good, CV; and Scates,DE. Methods of Research. New York, Appleton-Century-Crofts Inc, 1954
- Parten, MB. Surveys, Polls and Samples. New York, Harper & Bros, 1950
- Strang, R. “Principles of Readability Applied to Reporting Research”, Improving Educational Research. Washington DC, American Educational Research Association, 1948
- US Dept of Agriculture, Office of Information. Examples of Charts Used in Presenting Statistical Data, Negative 45145
- Yang, EHP. Fact-Finding with Rural People. New York, International Documents Service, FAO, 1955