2.6. Behaviour change and innovation in extension

Techniques for community interaction

Small group discussions

This technique may be defined as face-to-face mutual interchange of ideas and opinions between members of a relatively small group (usually five to twenty). It is more than the random, desultory, or unstructured conversation which occurs whenever small groups congregate: it has method and structure, but it can still be informal and democratic in every sense. The occurrence of a small group discussion implies a common concern regarding a desire for information, a problem to be solved, or a decision to be made.

Dynamic characteristics of this method

It permits maximum interaction and inter-stimulation between members.
It can place responsibility on all members to participate and to be prepared with facts and ideas.

How to use this method

The group should:

Have the group objective clearly in mind and the meeting, or segment of a meeting, in which the technique is to be used.
Consider alternative means that might be used to accomplish the objective.
Make sure the group has a problem, idea, concern, or issue that is worthy of discussion.
Select or provide for the selection of a chairman who can think rapidly and clearly, who can ask pertinent questions and not take sides, who can stimulate thinking, and who can summarise well.
Select a meeting place appropriate to the size of the group.
Arrange the group in a circle of square so each person can see every other person.
Provide table space if convenient for the entire group.
Keep it informal by having all members, including the leader, stay seated during the discussion.
Have proper equipment, such as blackboard, chalk, and paper, available.
Appoint a discussion recorder.
Giver everyone chance to talk but agree there will be no ‘speech-making’.
Encourage ease, informality, good humour, and friendly disagreement.
Keep the discussion directed and on the track – but let the group lay its own track.
Take time at appropriate intervals, at least every 10 or 15 minutes, to summarise and draw loose ends together.
Keep the group conscious of accomplishment and of the objective by frequent statements of progress by the chairman and/or recorder.
Discuss with fairness and objectivity, and void fault-finding, bias, and cynicism.

The group leader should:

Meet with other members and the leadership team and discuss the functions and operations of the team.
Assist the group to define clearly their problem or objective.
Aid the group in establishing the necessary structure to accomplish their objective.
Encourage the expression of ideas by all members of the group.
Refer questions back to the group.
See that facts are made available when needed.
Ask questions and make summaries without letting personal views intrude.
See that all aspects of the question or problem under discussion are explored.
Help the group to distinguish facts and sound argument from prejudice and opinions.
Call for frequent statements of progress from the discussion recorder.
Establish and maintain an informal, co-operative, and permissive group climate.
Help the recorder by drawing summary statements from the group ‘for the record’.
Keep the discussion on the subject and keep it progressing toward the objective established by the group.
Make suggestions instead of giving directions.
Stimulate and maintain a spontaneous exchange of ideas and of thinking.
When necessary bring in appropriate humour to enliven the atmosphere.
Translate poorly worded statements into clear statements that communicate.

Good members will:

Prepare for the discussion in advance of the meeting if possible.
Contribute to the discussion and assume any role the group needs to have filled.
Help the group define its discussion goal or purpose.
Encourage participation and help keep the atmosphere permissive.
Supply or seek facts and opinions when needed by the group.
Put personally centred roles aside and admit error if the situation demands.
Try to understand what other members say and also what they mean.
Encourage the group and consciously try to build a feeling of ‘we-ness’.
Assume leadership responsibility when necessary.
Accept the conclusions of the group if arrived at by democratic processes.
Confine remarks to short periods of time. Two to three minutes is the maximum time for a contribution.
Express views and ideas without waiting to be prodded by the leader or other members.

A good recorder will:

Meet with the leader and other members of the discussion leadership team in advance and discuss the function of the team and particularly the recorder in the group.
Record the sense of the discussion, not every word that is spoken.
Note the issues and questions discussed, the decisions reached, the proportion of the group in agreement, and significant minority opinions. Ask for clarification of ideas, decisions, etc, for the record.
Ask the leader to poll the group if in doubt whether an idea or statement should be recorded. Make sure agreements, disagreements, or decisions actually exist or are made.
Remind the group when they get off the subject. This assists the leader in keeping discussion ‘on the beam’.
Report on discussion progress during a discussion period when called upon by the leader or group members. Make a summary of main points, agreements, disagreements, and decisions at the close of the meeting.
Work with the discussion leader, the observer, and the resource personnel as a member of a team.
Edit and prepare a copy of the discussion notes for the record as soon as possible.

The observer will:

Serve on the leadership team with the special assignment of viewing the group in action and reporting his findings.
Meet with the other members of the discussion leadership team and discuss the function and operation of each member of the team.
Observe what is happening during the discussion and report this to the group.
Examine objectively the group’s method of procedure and operation – how the group works rather than what it does.
Help the group function more effectively by supplying insights into the operations of the group process.
Keep removed from participation in the discussion.
Describe for the group the process being used as it works.
Make an oral report to the group, describing and summarising how the group is operating (how the dynamics of the group are being utilised). The decision on how and when this should be done should be reached with the leader.
Stimulate the group to evaluate its patterns of operation and to work toward more efficient operation.

The consultant will:

Contribute relevant facts, points of view, and experiences to the group when and as they are needed.
State facts and views as contributions to the discussion rather than as final thought on the ideas under discussion.
As a general rule contribute when requested to do so by the leader or other members of the group.
Volunteer when confident the contribution will help move the group toward its objective.
Help the group at the close of a discussion to supplement the results and record of their discussion.
Be prepared at the close of a discussion to suggest further steps for the group to take in their discussions or in applying their conclusions in follow-up action.
Work closely with the discussion leader, observe, and record as a member of the leadership team.

Cautions

There must be a problem to be solved or inter-relationships to be found.
The results or accomplishments of discussion are related directly to the preparation of the group members with facts, general information, and ideas about the problem being discussed.
A discussion group is no place to keep ideas a secret: each member must be willing to share information.
Good discussion is based on and requires objective thinking.
Discussion that follows the steps of problem solving and decision making is more effective than unorganised and random discussion.
Listening is vital to discussion: each member must hear every other member and do some thinking about what he hears.
Good discussion depends upon individual contributions.
The designated leader must be qualified and have the necessary experience and training to lead a group discussion successfully.
The domination of discussion by one or more persons will limit the effectiveness and use of this technique.

The ‘Huddle’ method

This device for breaking down a large group into small units to facilitate discussion was described and popularised by J Donald Phillips of Michigan State University. The alternative names are derived from the idea of six persons discussing a subject for six minutes. Essentially it consists of a division of any group into small groups of four to six members for discussion purposes.

Dynamic characteristics of this method

It allows for the creation of an informal atmosphere no matter how large the group.
It permits participation of all those present.
It stimulates pooling of ideas within the small group and by means of the reporting to the large group facilitates over-all communication and participation.
It encourages a division of labour and responsibility.
It secures maximum total individual identification with the subject – problem at hand
It is a rapid method of obtaining consensus.
It encourages the development of individual confidence in the democratic process.
It makes it very difficult for discussion and recommendations to be controlled by authoritarian leaders or by small vociferous minorities.
It helps to free individuals of their inhibitions against participation by identifying their ideas with a small group which then may become the protagonist.
The method often provides welcome relief from fatigue, boredom and monotony as large meetings seem to bog down.

This method might be chosen …

To obtain information from the group, as to their interests, needs, problems, desires, and suggestions to be used in the planning of programmes, activities, evaluation procedures, and policies.
To arouse audience interest at the outset of a programme. Group interest, concern, and identification can be rapidly built up by this method and a mental set for listening and learning may be established. The results of such discussions may or may not be communicated to the speakers.
To increase involvement subsequent to various types of presentation. This may take the form of requests for clarification or further information, for attempts to apply general principles to specific situations or to other ways of internalising the subject matter. It often leads to useful suggestions for action or final solutions.

This method is useful …

When there is a desire to broaden the base of communication and participation.
When it is desired to tap the total resources of the group membership in relation to the subject – problem.
When there is a need to analyse a complicated problem which can be logically broken into component parts and segments assigned to various huddle groups.
When it seems desirable to broaden responsibility by securing participation of every member. This can be expanded in scope by the assignment of separate segments to various groups and the assignment of specific roles to various individuals within each group.
When it seems important to create an informal, permissive, democratic atmosphere.
When the rapid pooling of ideas from a large group is needed.
When there is a desire to obtain consensus, or to determine if consensus exists.
When it is desirable to create individual identity with the group or its problems.
When it seems worthwhile to try to develop individual security and confidence in problem solving and the democratic process. Such confidence gained in the huddle situation may extend to his participation in the total group situation. It is difficult to remain anonymous in a group of six.
When it is desired that the democratic process by bolstered in relation to possible authoritarian control.
When it seems advisable to stimulate motivation by a change of techniques.
When it appears that individual needs and interests are not being well expressed or met in the larger group situation.
When group standards and social controls are inadequate in the larger group and it is difficult to maintain thought and discussion at a suitable level. The huddle is a ‘forcing’ situation for thought and discussion.
When one wishes to take full advantage of the heterogeneity of the group. Those with varying levels of experience, knowledge, or background are much more willing to speak up in the small group; to express minority ideas.
When communication and human relations skills are obviously not well distributed within the larger group.
When subject matter is of such nature as to make it more easily discussed in a small group.

How to use this method

The group should:

Have clearly in mind the objectives of the meeting and the segment of the meeting in which the technique will be appropriate.
Consider any alternate means which might produce equally good results.
Thoroughly think through the purposes for which the method is to be used.
Have the questions to be asked of the huddle groups prepared in advance, written on cards if need be.

The group leader should:

Explain the procedure to the entire group – why it is being used, the mechanics involved, the time to be allowed, the expectations from the method.
Make the division into the huddle groups. Often this can be done by prior seating arrangements, but at times a ‘counting off’ or other method may be necessary. This is an efficient way to break up cliques.
Give such general instructions as: Get acquainted with each other. Select a chairman to encourage interaction within the huddle. Select a recorder – spokesman to keep a record and to report back to the general meeting. Allow about two minutes for carrying out these procedures.
Ask the chairman and the spokesman to identify themselves to make sure this instruction has been carried out.
Preferably hand out written copies of the questions to be discussed.
Repeat the time allowance and suggest that some comment by obtained from each member. Ask for and answer any questions which have arisen.
Move among the groups so as to be available for clarification and to determine progress being made. If it seems desirable the time may be extended, but a one minute warning should be given before calling time.
If the number of huddles, or lack of time, precludes a complete report back, ask the groups to take two minutes to rank their ideas in order of importance and pertinence.
Collect the reports from each group (written or verbal), classify them and prepare a summary. The procedure at this point develops infinite variety as a result of size of meeting, types of questions discussed, use to be made of them, etc.
Make an attempt to see that all significant points of view are brought before the general body in one form or another.

Cautions

This method has little value in disseminating information except as it taps the knowledge and experience of the individual group members.
The method tends to be overused by those who have experienced success with it. Like any other technique, it is useful only for certain purposes and under certain conditions.
The mechanical problems involved are formidable: rigorous prior planning is called for to minimise them.
Huddle groups cannot produce above the level of knowledge and experience possessed by the individuals. It is well to be realistic regarding results expected.
Time limitation and reporting back are essential features of the technique, but too much emphasis on them may hamper discussion.
Failure to make adequate use of the material obtained may create frustration among those who worked hard to produce it.

The ‘buzz group’ method

An alternative method of breaking a large group into small segments to facilitate discussion is called the ‘buzz group’ technique. Although the term is sometimes used interchangeably with ‘huddles’ or ‘discussion 66’ it is reserved in this instance for two person discussion groups. Since many of the characteristics and basic elements of this method are identical with those of the ‘huddle’, only the exceptions and the relatively unique aspects will be noted.

Dynamic characteristics of this method

It is an extremely informal device.
It virtually guarantees total participation.
It has even greater potential for total individual involvement than the huddle method.
It is usually practicable for groups of fifty or less.
It is extremely easy to set up.

This method might be chosen …

To provide maximum opportunity for individual participation in an informal setting.
To consider many separate aspects of a subject – problem.
To provide limited support to individuals for the purpose of facilitating their participation in the total group process.
To give opportunity for the widest possible expression of the heterogeneous characteristics of the members with respect to background, knowledge, or point of view.

How to use this method

A simple ‘count off’ procedure is usually all that is needed to set up the groups. No movement of people is ordinarily involved.
There need be no chairman, but agree on who is to report the results of the discussion.
Instructions and procedure can be greatly simplified as compared to the huddle technique.

Cautions

Because a large number of persons may be talking at once a high noise level may develop. It may prove necessary to warn against this or even to alter the physical setting.
Group standards and levels of social controls are usually not as high in this informal setting.
There is always the possibility that one of the two members of the buzz group will dominate the other and completely submerge any contribution which he might make.
There may be wide variations in the time required to cover a subject between the various buzz groups. The time allowance can usually be somewhat shorter than when six persons must air their views.

The committee hearing

The questioning of an individual by several persons constitutes the group technique known as the committee hearing. In its formal style, as practised by various committees of Congress, it has been made familiar to nearly everyone through the medium of television. It can be used much less formally as a group method by setting up a committee of members to obtain information from a consultant for the benefit of the entire group. Such a committee forms a bridge between the group and the expert.

Dynamic characteristics of this method

It is essentially a formal method.
It permits rather flexible control of the situation by the committee.
Interest is usually high because of the verbal interplay between questioners and expert. This can be further increased to the point of deep psychological involvement by means of establishing a competitive atmosphere.
As compared to the interview, which it resembles, the committee hearing makes much greater use of variations in knowledge, skills, and abilities of the questioners.
Good questioning is often obtained because of the mutual support and sharing of responsibility afforded the committee members.
It encourages co-operative thinking and questioning.
Each questioner has time to consider his questions while another has the floor.

This method might be chosen …

To stimulate interest or obtain information, facts, opinions, or policy pronouncements in a total group setting and in context meaningful to the group. Especially when there is a desire to probe deeply in certain areas, this technique can be used for many purposes varying from informal gathering of experience information to questioning ‘hostile witnesses’ regarding administrative policy or stands on political issues.
To create a psychological bridge between the speaker or resource person and the group – the questioning committee from the group can often perform this function. An atmosphere of ‘closeness’ or group representation can be created between the group and the questioners.
To help make better use of a speaker of consultant who:
- Has difficulty expressing himself before a group in a lecture setting.
- Tends to be verbose and rambling – has difficulty organising his presentation.
- Has difficulty speaking to the level of the group.
- Tends to be evasive, develops his points too rapidly for the group, or is superficial on certain critical points of information or opinion.
- Has difficulty judging the interest and concern areas of the group.
- Is so clever with words or argumentative techniques that he would be difficult for any one member of the group to handle in an interview situation.
To question in a logical organised fashion. A questioning committee will probably come closer to meeting this criterion than the entire group would.
To conserve time in the meeting.
To conserve time for preparation – the questioning committee can meet together and then meet with the consultant to organise the presentation.

This method is useful …

When the objectives of the group or of the particular meeting are difficult to explain to an outside speaker or resource person.
When the more conventional methods of the speaker, a lecturer, or general discussion do not appear to be the best means.
When there is need for the role of a psychological bridge between the speaker or resource person and the group.
When group standards and social control in the group are not at a level so the group as a whole will obtain the desired information from the speaker or resource person.
When an individual member of the group or the group as a whole does not have the human relations and communications skills to obtain the desired information from a speaker or resource person, it is possible that a small group of members (the questioning committee) would possess the needed skills.
When it is desirable to establish a permissive atmosphere and communication pattern with the speaker or resource person that will lead to greater participation by group members in subsequent questioning and discussion.
When the size of the group is too large for effective group questioning of the speaker or resource person, but where there is a desire to involve directly several people in a direct participation role (questioning committee).
When it is believed that each individual, or the questioning committee as a group, have greater skills than does the group as a whole at playing unit act roles that will lead to more effective use of the speaker or resource person.
When there is some degree of heterogeneity of interests or points of view in the group and there is a desire to represent several of them in the questioning.
When group standards are such that all group members will not assume the responsibility for thinking through a line of questioning to be used with the speaker or resource person. This responsibility can be given to the questioning committee.
When the individual group members feel insecure in the position of the role of questioning an expert. There may be certain group members that will feel secure in this role and can be used as the questioning committee. In some cases individual members may feel insecure and not perform the questioning function if the group as a whole is to ask questions, but if given the assignment by the group will attempt to perform the questioning function.
When it may be desirable to avoid feelings of aggression and projection against the expert. To keep these at a minimum it may be decided to choose a questioning committee that will probably be rational in their questioning.

How to use this method

The group should:

Have clearly in mind the objective(s) of the meeting and the particular segment of the meeting in which this technique might be used.
Consider alternative means that might be used to accomplish this objective.
Secure a qualified subject – problem expert. Such a person will usually come from outside the group but may be a member of the group.
Secure a questioning committee – capable as secure individuals in human relations and communication skills and subject matter. Usually they will be members of the group. However, in some cases it may be well to have one or more of the questioning committee be people from outside the group if they have specific questioning abilities or subject or authority competence needed by the group.
The questioning committee should meet and think through the important aspects of the problem, the framework for questioning, the important areas for questioning, the level of questioning, the procedure, and timing. The questioning committee may wish to involve the entire group in suggesting significant areas for questioning.
The expert and the questioning committee should usually meet in advance of the meeting and decide the general framework for questioning, the major areas of questioning, the procedure to be followed, and timing. This should enable the expert to refresh his memory, secure additional information, and organise his thinking. It may open up new avenues of questioning for the questioning committee.
Definite assignments should be made on who is to introduce the expert and the committee, give the background on the area to be discussed, set the framework and procedure for listening, and define the role of the remainder of the group during and following the hearing.
In some cases, the expert may be allowed to make a brief formal statement at the beginning of the hearing.
The qualifications of the expert should be established in the introduction or early in the committee hearing.
The questioning committee should always keep in mind, and in fact may want to assign specific tasks to committee members, the unit act roles that need to be performed if the hearing is going to be most meaningful to the group – orienter, clarifier, integrator, energiser, harmoniser, summariser, etc.
There may be need to assign someone the specific role of final summariser. It may be a member of the questioning committee, the chairman, or a group member given the specific assignment of determining significant facts, opinions, agreements, or differences of opinions and reporting them to the group for discussion or acceptance.
The questioning committee should strive to establish themselves with the entire group as their representatives in the committee hearing situation.
Attention should be given to the physical setting of the meeting. The arrangement should be such that everyone can see and hear. Different psychological effects can be obtained by the relative placing of the expert, the questioning committee, and the remainder of the group. For instance, it is possible to create the impression of committee dominance by placing the committee on a raised platform which allows its members to look down to the person being questioned. Place the remainder of the group in a semicircle so that they can see both the expert and the questioning committee. For a more permissive atmosphere place the expert among the questioning committee members with the remainder of the group distributed in an informal arrangement around them

Cautions

Select the expert with care. A reluctant or insecure expert may contribute little to the meeting.
The questioning committee should carefully plan their questioning. Unorganised questioning will probably not produce much significant information. This does not mean that the committee should not be flexible in following up significant leads.
Beware of the dominant position that the questioning committee may have over the individual expert. Depending on the objective of using the committee hearing technique, the degree to which this potential dominance is used should be kept in mind.
The questioning committee should always remember that they are representing the group as a whole. Thus questioning should be in line with the group’s interests and concerns and at a level and at the speed of idea development understandable to the group.

Brainstorming

Brainstorming is a type of small group interaction designed to encourage the free introduction of ideas on an unrestricted basis and without any limitations as to feasibility. Brainstorming makes it possible for a group to consider alternative solutions to problems unhampered by organisational, institutional, or financial restrictions, or by limitations of skills or abilities. All ideas are accepted without challenge, except as they may conflict with any ground rules previously laid down.

Brainstorming is often relatively unrestricted, but it is possible to limit it to a single problem, or to solutions for a single problem. Sometimes a brainstorming session on a broad problem area may be followed by a session on some more restricted aspect of the problem.

Dynamic characteristics of this method

It is completely informal.
It permits discussion of a problem without consideration of any of the usual restrictions of inhibitions.
It gives the group an opportunity to consider many alternatives, not just those which fall within their perceived range of abilities.
It provides maximum opportunity for inter-stimulation and creativity among members.
Because of the easy exchange of ideas and opinions inherent in this method it often has value in the building of group morale and esprit de corps.

This method might be chosen …

To allow for maximum creativity and inter-stimulation.
To make a clean break from traditional objectives, means, and activities and to explore new possibilities.
To make possible a look at all courses of action.
To make certain that no aspects of a problem have been overlooked.
To set an atmosphere of thought and communication that allows for the consideration of major changes in existing group policies.
To secure, through the release from restrictions, new and dynamic ideas, some of which may be very useful.

This method is useful …

When the group is composed of relatively mature individuals and when group members know each other well enough to express themselves freely.
When the atmosphere can be created in which complete freedom of expression is acceptable.
When the specific role expectation and status patterns in the group can be minimised so that the creation of ideas rather than who suggests the ideas becomes the important thing.
When individual group members have the degree of flexibility to create new ideas outside the usual patterns of expectations, and can let other people create ideas without challenging them on the basis of resources, tradition, logic, etc.
When the group is small enough or when the physical situation will allow the group to break up into smaller units. No more than 10 – 15 people make a suitable sized brainstorming group.
When there is adequate time for a rather deliberate, relaxed approach and definitive action-oriented results are not immediately needed.

How to use this method

The group should:

Determine that the problem under consideration has alternative aspects or solutions.
Be aware of the specific area in which they are to think and the nature of answers which are to come forth – objectives, alternative means, activities, promotion ideas, etc.
Decide how much time they have to discuss the problem.
Establish an informal physical setting to help relieve any inhibitions.

A good chairman should:

Set up the technique with the group by spelling out the area of thought with which the group will cope.
Make sure some person has the responsibility of making a record of the ideas produced.
Help set up and enforce the rules of the brainstorming session, which should cover:
- The point that ideas are to be expressed without any concern for possible limitations to be placed on the implementation of the idea.
- The point that ideas are not to be challenged on any basis other than that they are unrelated to the subject under discussion. They may be expanded and elaborated but not subjected to restrictive discussion.
Set the time limit of the discussion.
Assign priorities when two or more people wish to speak at the same time, and attempt to draw out those who are not participating.
Strive to develop the atmosphere and frame of reference for discussion by encouraging divergent ideas.
Take the lead in closing off the ’pure brainstorming session’ and move the group to a consideration of the more significant ideas obtained in the light of limitations which actually exist.

Group members should:

Drop the usual restrictions placed on idea creation.
Abide by the group decisions on time of discussion, topic of discussion, and rules about challenging the ideas of others.
Avoid any tendency to deprecate in any way the contributions of others.

Cautions:

Brainstorming is useful to get out divergence of ideas and to bring out creativity, but it slows down the process of narrowing the alternative choices.
It is effective when the group is relatively homogeneous.
Can be used most effectively when both members and the group are relatively mature and have the ability to be creative.
Some group members may be unable to ‘throw off’ usual restrictions and have difficulty projecting themselves into the discussion.
Some group members may attempt to use the session as a situation in which to attempt to gain status by exploiting the ridiculous or humorous aspects of the subject under discussion.

BRAINSTORMING

Number of people most effective: 5 – 15 people

Minimum time: 5 – 10 minutes

Materials: newsprint, felt tip pens, tape

Setting: friendly, trusting, informal atmosphere

Purpose: Brainstorming is a method used to generate an idea list from a group in a short period of time. It is designed to encourage participation by all members. This method usually produces creative, liberated new ideas useful in solving the problem or issue at hand.

Goal: produce a quantity of ideas.

Process:

Choose recorder to write ideas generated on newsprint.
Set time limit or maximum number of items before you begin.
Present topic clearly. Write it on newsprint so all members can see. Give available background information.
Ask people to offer ideas as rapidly as they can. May ask for clarification, if idea not understood by group.

Rule: no idea can be judged, discussed or rejected

Make sure group members understand that ideas will be evaluated after brainstorming is finished.
Write down on newsprint all ideas presented. Write word for word if possible.
Move rapidly from one idea to another.
To encourage group participation take only one idea from each person. This is especially important if one or two people are dominating the idea sharing.
Evaluate ideas, prioritise and return to brainstorming if more ideas are needed.
When used in a real meeting setting, proceed with the decision making task.

Discussion questions:

Did all members participate?
Were new ideas generated that would not have been proposed or accepted in traditional discussion?
Was evaluation and prioritising difficult for your group to accomplish?
How can this method be used in groups you work with?

Summary comments:

Brainstorming with a group releases many ideas in a way that seems to spark other thoughts. The non-judgmental gathering of ideas breaks down barriers among people and avoids blocks such as “We’ve tried that before … it didn’t work”, etc.