Definition of Communication
Communication can be defined as “the exchange of thoughts, messages or information” (Encarta encyclopaedia, 2000)
Let’s explore that further. When we communicate, we give or exchange information by, for example, speaking (oral) or writing. To communicate can also mean to show or transmit a thought or feeling by writing, speech, or a gesture (non-verbal communication), so that this thought or feeling is clearly understood. To communicate can also mean to understand each other. See below a few examples:
For example:
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Written communication |
Email; letter; memo; fax; minutes of a meeting; agenda; reports; etc. |
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Oral communication |
Conversations; debates; formal speech; verbal report; argument; instructions; etc. |
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Non-verbal communication |
Frown; shrug; smile; laughter; wagging a finger; high five; handshakes; look of bewilderment; etc. |
Examples of Oral communication
From the definitions given in the above example, we can see that interaction is a key concept in communication. When you communicate orally, you always do so with an audience – a person (or number of people) who hears what you are attempting to communicate. Notice that we have used the word attempting – not all communication is successful or effective. When people fail to communicate successfully or effectively, this leads to misunderstandings and misinterpretation.
Our aim should always be to communicate as clearly as we can. To do this we need to understand a number of different elements about communication. Firstly, we need to understand that the person/people we are attempting to communicate with (our audience) is very important. Generally, even if we are quite shy, we have a number of friends or family members with whom we communicate in a relaxed and easy manner. These constitute small informal groups.
Groups and Group dynamics
Now, let us look at groups that are found in the work or study place. Basically, groups have one or more of the following features:
Groups consist of a number of people who define themselves as belonging to the particular group.
Groups generally meet regularly or for a specific length of time.
The group consists of individuals who interact with one another (both verbally and non-verbally)
Different members take on different roles in relation to one another
A group generally has a well-defined aim and a specific task to perform
There is generally a group leader
A group has a specific purpose – the purpose might be to decide on a method for completing an assignment, to discuss a new hydration scheme in a particular area, or any other well-defined aim.
A group has an agenda – a reason for meeting and a list of items that need to be discussed to fulfil its purpose.
A group will have a procedure to follow and a set schedule – for example the group may decide to have a preliminary meeting to discuss possible dates for reseeding and then to have follow-up meetings to finalise the procedure to be followed when doing the reseeding.
When a group is meeting, it is important that developments in the group are monitored – someone needs to record what is happening in the process.
A group must retain focus – people often get side-tracked in a group and wander off
the topic at hand. Generally, the group leader needs to ensure that the group is reminded of why they are meeting and that the focus must be maintained.
A group needs to draw conclusions. It is pointless just having a general discussion without a conclusion being drawn, for example, the group may conclude that certain time periods are unsuitable for reseeding and that they will have to do some research on the topic, then meet to finalise a date.
In order for effective communication to take place in a group setting, constant feedback must be given to members of the group so that they know how they are performing and how the group is progressing.
All members of a group, in order to feel that they have done an effective job, need to feel a sense of ownership in the group’s final decisions. If this does not happen members of the group will feel bored and left out and not inclined to communicate.
Interviews and Interview Techniques
We have looked at group situations in some detail. We are now going to look at effective communication in an interview situation.
An interview can be described as a specific type of interpersonal communication. The word “inter” actually means between. There are generally two people present at an interview – the interviewer, conducting the interview; and the interviewee, who is being interviewed. This person can also be referred to as the “respondent”. An interview is a process in which ideas, information and feelings are elicited by the interviewer from the interviewee for a very specific purpose.
Interviews take place in a wide variety of contexts. In the workplace for example you may conduct an interview with a prospective farm labourer in order to assess his/her suitability for a position you wish to fill.
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Examples |
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Media |
Some examples of interviews in the media are: – interviews with politicians |
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Business |
Some examples of business or workplace interviews are: – employment |
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Remember this is not a complete list – you may have thought of other examples not |
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For an interview to be an effective form of oral communication there are certain key elements that need to be in place.
An interview is an oral communication in which it is important that:
- A relationship appropriate to the context is successfully established and
- A non-threatening opportunity for participants to share information is provided.
Let us look more carefully at what we mean by this.
If it is important that the people you are interviewing need to know that what you are discussing will not be used against them, or spread around, you need to gain their trust. You could do this by informing the interviewees that what they tell you will remain confidential.
If it is important that the person you are interviewing is clear and concise in their answers, then you need to provide or create a context in which you maintain a clear focus on the issue at hand. You could do this by requesting the interviewee to be as precise as possible when answering and to include only relevant information.
If you wish to communicate effectively with the interviewee in an interview situation it is very important that a non-threatening environment is created. Your tone of voice and manner should be friendly and encouraging and you should make every attempt to put the interviewee at ease. When interviewees do not feel threatened and feel that they are not under attack they will be more willing to share information. In this way communication will be more effective.
Now let us look at some key elements of an effective interview. For an effective interview you need to:
- Draw up a plan of what information you wish to receive and how you are going to do this.
- Do some background research into the person you are interviewing; as a minimum you need to know key facts like his/her name; age status; job position; etc.
- Sequence or order your questions in a logical manner. In order to do this you must be very clear about what information you wish to elicit from the interviewee.
- Be prepared to be flexible – if an interviewee gives an unexpected answer or answers a question in such a way that your sequence is disrupted you must be flexible enough to accept the answer and still ensure that you maintain your focus. This means you must listen attentively and actively to all the responses. Organize the responses you have elicited in a clear and logical manner.
Draw conclusions in a precise way. At the end of the interview you must know exactly what information or data you have elicited and what you can conclude on the basis of this data.
How do we ensure that the contribution you make to the group is appropriate to the specific task at hand? In order to do this, you must keep in mind what the specific task is. When you are sure your contribution is related to the specific task, then go ahead and make your point clearly and concisely.
How do we ensure that the contribution you make is appropriate to the nature of the group? When you are going to make a contribution think of who your audience is. Is what you wish to say appropriate in terms of the nature of the group? If you feel it is, then make your point clearly and concisely.
Most importantly, how do we ensure that you promote effective communication, which in turn will promote effective teamwork? Remember that your audience is critical. Always bear in mind that for communication to be effective, your audience needs to understand exactly what it is you are trying to say. Communication is effective when the message you wish to convey is the message your audience receives.
If you are not sure whether your communication has been clearly understood, try asking a question. The answer will usually indicate whether your communication has been effective. Effective teamwork happens when members of the team communicate their ideas and feelings clearly and listen to one another in an attentive and respectful manner.
Meetings and meeting Procedures
Thus far we have looked at two forms of oral communication, namely that which occurs in groups and that which occurs in the interview situation. We are now going to look at a third occasion during which oral communication plays a vital role, in meetings. In almost all work environments one is required to participate in meetings.
The purpose of each meeting may vary, or you could be asked to attend regular set meetings on a weekly or monthly basis. As in all forms of oral communication, it is important that your participation in these meetings is effective. In order to communicate effectively in meetings, it is vital that the purpose and context of the meeting is clearly understood.
Examples of purposes of meetings could be:
To elect a new worker representative to a trade union; to finalise a date for a work function; to fulfil a legal requirement e.g. a Board of Trustees’ meeting or a Shareholders’ meeting; a committee meeting; a meeting to decide on a new advertising campaign for the launch of a new product etc. Remember that you may have thought of different purposes for a meeting that are not listed above but are still correct.
In order to participate in a formal meeting in an appropriate manner you need to be familiar with some key concepts related to meeting procedures and organization. Let us now look at some of these.
Notice of the meeting: This is an oral or written communication that indicates the intention to hold a meeting; it will usually also stipulate the date, time and venue of the meeting.
Agenda: This is a prepared list of items that are to be discussed at a meeting; an agenda will usually contain apologies from members who are unable to attend; confirmation of minutes (the written record) from the previous meeting; matters arising from the minutes; a list of items to be discussed at the present meeting; any other business; conclusion.
Committee: This is a group of people who is accountable to a higher authority. Committee members can be voted for or appointed.
For example: The Chairperson appointed Ms Mohammed, Mr. Parker, Ms September and Mr. Plaatjies to form a committee to compare the efficiency of different planting methods for grapes.
Minutes: This is the official written record of who was present at the meeting and what was said by people at the meeting; it will also record decisions made for action to be taken.
For example: “After much discussion during which Ms Le Grange expressed her dissatisfaction with the present arrangements for staff transport, the meeting decided to purchase a dedicated mini-van that would operate after hours, transporting workers to their homes”
Point of order: This is a way of calling the attention of the Chairperson to the fact that you think an irregularity in procedure has taken place. The Chairperson is required to decide whether this is so or not.
Chairperson: This is the person who runs (or presides over) the meeting. When addressing a point to the chairperson you are required to be formal and use the words “Madam Chair” or “Mr Chairman”. The chairperson is in the leadership role during the meeting. He or she has to control the proceedings; he or she has to call for apologies; confirm the minutes of the previous meeting; make sure the agenda is followed; rule on points of order; exercise the casting vote in the case of a voting tie; sum up the decisions of the meeting; confirm the date of the next meeting and declare the meeting closed.
Suggestion for learners: Think of a recent work meeting you have attended. How could the Chairperson have improved his/her chairing? Write up a few guidelines for ‘good chairing practice’.
Motion: This is a proposal that is put to the meeting regarding an action or in order to show a certain attitude. Motions are proposed as positive statements.
For example: Mr. Habib proposed the following motion: all plant order forms to be signed by the treasurer. The motion was seconded by Mr. Bezuidenhout. The meeting indicated by a show of hands that it was in favour and the motion was adopted.
These are some of the main components of a formal meeting. It is important that you understand all of these in order to participate effectively and appropriately in a formal meeting. Remember this is another example of oral communication and the context has to be clearly understood by you in order for effective participation to take place. In this way you will ensure that you are making a valuable contribution towards realising the objectives of the meeting.
Debates: Formal and Informal
In the section above on meetings we looked at both oral and written communication. Our focus, however, was on effective oral communication. We are now going to move on to look at two other forms of oral communication, namely debate and negotiations. Again in order to communicate effectively in these two arenas you will need to be aware of the context and the audience.
Let us look firstly at what we mean when we say we are going to debate an issue.
To debate means to talk or argue about an issue; to talk about something at length and in detail, especially as part of a formal exchange of opinion;
Debates can be an organized or public meeting for discussion: or an argument. The word comes from the Old French “debat”, originally from Latin “battere” meaning to fight. Debates can be formal or informal.
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Examples |
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Formal |
a debate on whether pesticides and fertilizers should be used; |
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Informal |
two students debating whether to participate in a college sports event; |
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Remember that you could have given many other examples that are not here that will still |
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Formal debates follow certain set procedures. The topic for debate is always stated in the positive, e.g. “Genetic modification of plants is unhealthy”. There are then two opposing speakers (or teams of speakers), one that supports the motion and one that opposes it. Both speakers are given an opportunity to put forward their ideas and then questions from the floor (the audience) are allowed. After that each speaker (or one member of the team) is allowed to sum up. Then the debate is adjudicated (judged) by an impartial source. The adjudicator must decide which side presented the strongest arguments. Finally the proposed motion is either accepted or rejected.
It should be apparent to you that in order to convince someone of your side of the debate, effective communication is critical. Arguments need to be presented in a clear and unambiguous manner; research into the topic for debate needs to be done and effective listening skills need to be employed when listening to questions from the floor.
Negotiations: Definition and Strategies
Another form of oral communication that often occurs in the workplace is negotiation.
To negotiate is to discuss terms of an agreement; to attempt to come to an agreement on something through discussion and compromise. Negotiation takes place between two parties, which are attempting to decide what each party can offer the other in exchange for something they would like to have.
Once again, context and audience are critical factors in this type of oral communication.
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Examples |
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Friend-based |
• One friend usually takes the early lunch break whilst the other takes the later lunch break. The friend who takes the later lunch break wants to change to the earlier lunch break for a week. In exchange she promises her friend that she will change the time of her lunch break for a week whenever the other friend requires this. |
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Workplace |
• Management has decided that annual holidays are to be reduced by three days. The staff members are threatening to refuse to work on Saturdays if this happens. |
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Remember that there are many other examples that you could have given that will still be correct. In order to determine whether your examples are appropriate check that each party in the negotiation has some bargaining power and that there is an issue to be resolved |
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Successful Negotiations
There are certain key elements, which can determine whether or not negotiations are successful. Here are some important points to remember:
For negotiations to be successful, the negotiator needs to:
Get as much background information about the issue and the other parties involved in the negotiating process as possible;
Do an analysis of the needs of the other party in order to make sure you understand their point of view;
Ask as many relevant questions as possible, to ensure you understand the facts relating to the issue and a clear grasp of the attitudes of the opposing party;
Make positive statements about what you are prepared to do in order to encourage the other party to lower their demands;
Listen as attentively and actively as possible to make sure you understand exactly what the other party is asking for;
Pick up clues from non-verbal communication – remember that body language says a lot about how someone is feeling; observe closely to see whether the opposing party is being aggressive or tentative or firm in their approach;
Stress common interests before highlighting differences;
Be as flexible as possible;
Make sure that minor differences have been sorted out before moving on to the bigger issues;
Keep a cool head and be as rational and logical as you can; do not allow emotion to cloud the issue;
Do not threaten the other party – always attempt to reach a compromise.
Make sure that neither side loses face or feels hurt or humiliated by the negotiating process.
Once again, we can see that effective communication will lead to a more positive outcome for all the parties represented in a negotiating process.
Different Socio-Cultural contexts
We are now going to look at how the way we respond to the manner in which others express themselves is affected by and is sensitive to different socio-cultural contexts.
In South Africa we have a wide range of cultures. We are in the fortunate position since 1994 of being exposed to people from a range of different socio-cultural backgrounds both at work and in our social interactions. While this is generally a positive thing, which leads to an interesting diversity in our lives it, can lead to misunderstanding if we are not aware of differences in cultural contexts.
Let us look more carefully at what we mean when we use the word “culture”. Culture refers to the system of values, beliefs, traditions and behaviour of a particular group. It also refers to the accepted social practices of a particular group of people which makes this group unique. In South Africa people often define themselves as belonging to a certain culture on the basis of language and ethnicity, as well as religious, geographical or political affiliation.
We need to look at how communication is affected by cultural context. The sociocultural context in which we operate influences how we express ourselves. In South Africa we often have to engage in intercultural communication. This is communication between groups of people from different cultures. When we are engaged in intercultural communication the following important points must be borne in mind:
- People from different cultural groups might have different world views;
- People from different cultural groups might use different communication styles – both verbal and non-verbal;
- When people from different cultural groups communicate there is often an element of anxiety that they may be misunderstood;
- When people from different cultural groups communicate it is essential that they communicate very carefully;
- When people from different cultural groups communicate the results are not always completely predictable.
For example:
- An elderly Xhosa man might object to being told how to plant grapes by a young English speaking man.
- In some African cultures it is considered impolite to make eye contact with a superior. This could be interpreted by a Westerner as a sign of shiftiness (sneakiness).
- A farm worker whose home language is Sotho may feel very anxious about having to express herself in English to the person taking down her personal details f or UIF purposes.
- A young urban person may use the word “cool” to indicate that everything is alright; if the audience is from a rural cultural group they may not understand this use of the word and take it literally.
- You may believe that you have treated an older rural Tswana woman in a polite manner by being distant and formal; she may feel as if you have been abrupt and unfriendly.
Remember that our response to the ways that people from different groups express themselves is influenced by the socio-cultural context in which communication takes place.
Bearing this in mind here are some tips to ensure that you communicate successfully with your audience in an intercultural context.
- Avoid apathy (a don’t care attitude): Be aware of and sensitive to sociocultural differences between yourself and others;
- Do not make assumptions: Never assume that what you have heard about other cultures is true – check this out for yourself;
- Avoid stereotyping: Do not fall into the trap of making generalised negative statements about a certain socio-cultural group;
- Be flexible and open: Do not resist change and always be open to new possibilities – listen carefully to new ideas and be prepared to change your old attitudes to those from different socio-cultural groups;
- Be aware of and sensitive to different world views;
- Be aware of and sensitive to the fact that others may speak a different language;
- Be aware of differences in non-verbal communication from different sociocultural groups;
- Rid yourself of prejudices: Some of us have strongly held negative beliefs about certain cultures – this is a terrible barrier to effective communication;
- Always attempt to build trust: Effective communication is more likely in an atmosphere of trust.