5.1 Creating written text

Writing can be regarded as the art of transforming information into effective communication where the intended message is prepared by the sender to reach a specific receiver.

Various types of written text or modes of writing exist. Expository and narrative writing is arguably possibly the two modes of writing most commonly used.

Expository writing is a mode of writing in which the purpose of the author is to inform, explain, describe, or define his or her subject to the reader. Expository text is meant to ‘expose’ information and is the most frequently used type of writing by learners and students.

A well-written factual text remains focused on its topic and provides facts in order to inform its reader. It should be unbiased, accurate, and use a scholarly third person tone.

The text needs to include all aspects of the subject. Examples of expository writing can be found in magazine and newspaper articles, non-fiction books, travel brochures, business reports, memorandums, professional journals and encyclopaedia articles and many other types of informative writing.

The effective planning and production of written text depends on the following rhetorical situation or the choices that the sender needs to make when creating formal structured messages.

These include:

The audience

The identification of the audience for which a message is intended is usually done by firstly determining the broad category of audience (lay audience, expert audience, technical audience, mixed audience) and secondly by defining the specific description of the audience in detail. Audience refers to the reader or ‘consumer’ of a text. The term usually refers to an intended audience in either an email, or any form of text shared in business or commercial writing.

 

The following serves as a guideline:

• Size
• Age
• Gender
• Level of education
• Cultural background
• Intelligence level
• Language
• Occupation
• Status in the business or community
• Knowledge of the subject
• Attitude to the subject
• Attitude towards the communicator / presenter / writer
• Objectives of the audience after receiving the message.

 

The purpose

The purpose of the written communication furthermore influences the style, format and tone. When writing text in a business environment or any environment, we need to consider the purpose of that text. Purpose refers to the intended action or reaction of the text. It This also means and aims at what motivates the production of a text which is shared

The purposes could include any or even a combination of the following:

• Describing a process
• Explaining a concept
• Instruction
• Recording of results
• Evaluate results and recommend action
• Generate goodwill
• Persuasion
• Proposing action, project, idea
• Selling a product, concept or idea
• Informing
• Rejection of a proposal

A report could for example record and evaluate facts and recommend action or a
conclusion.

 

Other factors to consider whe writing a text are:

1. Style: refers to the context of how the text is received. It can either be formal or informal. Any and all commercial, business or social texts have a style in which they are written.
2. Context: refers to the circumstances, or environment, in which a text is produced and/or read. When sending emails in a busines, the context in which it is read is very important.
3. Form: refers to the type of register that is being used in a text. The reader, whether we like it or not can interpret a text and discern the tone and type of register which the sender may or may not have intended to portray in the text.

Planning to ensure a coherent message

The receiver or audience requires to understand the topic and purpose of communication whether received orally or in writing. Effective transfer of information in communication requires planning and the gathering of relevant information after which information is organised to plan the communication.

Information gathering

To ensure relevance and adequate facts in the message, relevant information should be gathered. It may be required that research is conducted for information gathering in which case details of sources must be recorded.

Sources are recorded as follows:

• The page number or page range is omitted if the entire work is cited. The author’s surname is omitted if it appears in the text. Thus, we may say: Author (2001) revolutionized the field of trauma surgery.
• Two or three authors are cited using “and” or “&”: (Author, Smith, and Jones 1991) or (Author, Smith & Jones 1991). Four or more authors are cited using et al. (Author et al. 1992).
• An unknown date is cited as no date (Deane n.d.). A reference to a reprint is cited with the original publication date in square brackets (Marx [1867] 1967, p. 90).
• If an author published two books in 2005, the year of the first (in the alphabetic order of the references) is cited and referenced as 2005 a, the second as 2005 b.
• A citation is placed wherever appropriate in or after the sentence. If it is at the end of a sentence, it is placed before the period, but a citation for an entire block quote immediately follows the period at the end of the block.
• Complete citations are provided in alphabetical order in a section following the text, usually designated as “Works cited” or “References.” The difference between “works cited” and a bibliography is that a bibliography section may include works not cited.
• All citations are in the same font as the main text.

Examples of book references are:

• Smith, J. (2005a). Harvard Referencing, Wherever, Florida: Wikimedia Foundation. ISBN 1-899235-74-4.
• Smith, J. (2005b). More Harvard Referencing, Wherever, Florida: Wikimedia Foundation. ISBN 1-899235-74-4.

An example of a journal reference is:

• Smith, John Maynard. (1998). The origin of altruism. Nature 393: 639–40.

A newspaper article is usually cited in running text and omitted from the References section. An example of a formal newspaper reference is:

• Bowcott, O. “Protests halt online auction to shoot stag”, The Guardian, October 18, 2005.

If the publication is offline:

• Bowcott, O. 2005. Protests halt online auction to shoot stag. The Guardian, October 18, 2005

Organising the information

Once all information has been gathered it has to be organised to ensure that the final written product or message where the theme or focus is consistent, each component or stage flows into the next and it is clear which part of the message or theme is emphasised.

The major impact in any communication is the introduction and the closure. This is certainly also the case in well-designed written communication and text. The introduction should aim to grab attention and provide goodwill and a good first impression. The closure should summarise and urge action. Organising of information can be approached in different ways.

The following serves as possibilities:

• Organise information in time order – past to present
• Familiar to unfamiliar
• Simple to complex
• General to particular, or particular to general
• Comparisons
• Problem to solution
• Cause to result.

 

To ensure that a consistent theme is present and that the message is logical analyse the information gathered and cluster information into logical topic outlines around a main topic or key idea.

This can be done by writing down main headings or thoughts and clustering information underneath each heading, either through the use of a vertical or horizontal linear approach or by using a mind-map approach to organise the information relevant to the message that is planned.

This should ensure that every sub-topic is linked properly to ensure that ideas flow logically from the one into the other. This is achieved by ensuring that sentences and paragraphs flow logically into the next.

To achieve coherence, the following words make useful tools to ensure fluency:

• Conjunctions such as “however”, “but”, “if” and “because”
• Key nouns that is repeated at various stages of the message
• Numbering – “firstly”, “secondly”, “finally”
• Sentences such as “These are not the only concerns, we need to also consider….” Emphasis is obtained when it is possible for the audience or received to identify main points or key areas with ease.

Emphasis is achieved by:

• Using the beginnings and ends of messages to state or summarise key points
• Using topic sentences in paragraphs to state main ideas
• Repeating key points or main ideas
• Avoiding irrelevant points that takes the attention away from the main focus

 

Correct vocabulary

The correct choice of vocabulary should suit both the audience / receiver and the purpose of the communication.

Vocabulary is more than just the use of words. Words obtain meaning through use and agreement of what they mean, and the effective choice of vocabulary therefore requires ensuring that both the sender and receiver of a message share the same meanings for a word.

The function of words in communication is to convey facts and opinions, persuade and assist people to communicate in social settings.

The selection of vocabulary when planning a message includes:

• Making sure that both the sender and recipient share the same meanings for words.

Let us for example consider the word “Knot”.
In isolation it has no meaning, but in context it can:

• Refer to the speed at which a ship is sailing

• Refer to something that exists in a piece of string

• Indicate or mark the loss of a branch on a tree

Technical terms are defined

Technical terms are important for the technical audience. It is best to avoid the use of technical terms for a mixed or lay-audience. Where necessary and where the use of technical terms cannot be avoided, it could be addressed by:

• Defining technical terms in a glossary

• Leave out technical terms

• Defining terms or key terms at the onset of the message

• Explain terms as they are used in the message

Simple words are used

Text is easier to understand if simple words and phrases can be used to replace more complex or foreign ones.

For example:

• Ameliorate can be replaced by improve;

• Analogous by similar;

• Anthropogenic by human;

• Ceteris paribus by other things being equal;

• Component by part;

• Ingenuous by innocent;

• Ingenious by clever;

• inter alia by amongst other things;

• utilise by use;

• Prima facie by at first glance;

• remunerate by pay;

• terminate by end;

• pari passu by at the same rate;

• pace or time and

• peruse by read.

Fact and opinion is clearly distinguished

Care should be taken to distinguish between fact and opinion.

Compare for example the following two sentences:

1. You are the best typist in the team (opinion) with

2. You type five documents per day more than the rest of the typing pool. (fact)

Or

1. You are lazy (opinion) with

2. You were asked to finish the assignment three days in a row, it is still not completed. (fact)

Emotional words are used with care

A logical argument cannot be developed by using emotional words such as:

• progressive,

• reckless,

• crank,

• sound,

• good,

• correct,

• terrorist,

• insurgent,

• sexist,

• imperialist,

• improved,

• superior,

• deviationist,

• fascist.

Words pre-judging a situation is avoided

Avoid using words with a negative or positive connotation and rather replace such words with neutral alternatives.

For example:

• Slob (negative) versus

• Man (neutral)

And

• Problem (negative) versus

• Challenge (more neutral)

Jargon is avoided

Jargon is language that is difficult to understand due to the following problems:

• Technical terms are not suitable in terms of the audience

• Unfamiliar words are used

• Sentences are long and complex

• Paragraphs are long

Level of formality

Vocabulary or words should be aligned with the level of formality selected for the communication or message.

An informal letter will require different words than a formal presentation or report.

For example:

• I hereby wish to tender my resignation (Very formal)

Versus

• I wish to resign (formal)

Or

• The writer hereby wishes to forward his condolences (very formal)

Versus

• Herewith receive our sympathy (formal)

Versus

• We are so sorry to hear. …(Informal)

 

Style

Style in communication can be defined in terms of the level of formality that was used to convey the intended message. It is the way in which words are selected and strung together for a range of purposes and audiences – it is therefore the way in which we write or speak.

Style and tone is closely linked – as the style and in particular the selected vocabulary that we use influences and determine the tone of the message. Tone is the attitude of the sender of the message towards the audience or receiver.

Style is defined in terms of formality and whether the communication is:

Personal or impersonal

The personal style uses personal pronouns whilst the impersonal style uses the pronoun “it”.

Active or passive

Active style is usually the preferred style to use in the compiling of written
communication

Passive style is used in instances where:

• Reports require impersonal style
• When a point is emphasised
• When neutrality is necessary in a difficult situation

Concise or wordy

Avoid unnecessary lengthy wording when a shorter way to express a term will be equally effective.

Clear or ambiguous

Ensure that information is not vague, word order is not poor and that punctuation is used effectively to ensure understanding. Do not use words with more than one meaning.

Concrete or abstract

Provide the necessary facts and figures to ensure that information is not vague and abstract.

Formality can range between:

• High formal

In this instance subject matter is usually complex ad little or no attention is paid to the relationship between the sender and receiver.

• Formal

Less formal than highly formal and effective for most oral and written messages.

• Consultative

Less formal than the formal style and suitable for spoken and written communication in organisations such as reports or memorandums.

• Casual

More suitable for spoken communication as the language used is conversational.

• Intimate

Used among people who know one another well. This is not suitable for organisational use.

 

Layout for readability

Techniques used to ensure readability include:

• Providing summaries in the beginning of documents such as reports
• Presenting well-organised, coherent messages with the right emphasis.
• Providing good linking words in paragraphs
• Ensuring good transitions between paragraphs
• Writing in a clear, simple style
• Choosing a suitable vocabulary
• Explaining difficult ideas by providing examples
• Keeping the number of syllables per word as low as possible
• Avoiding abstraction as far as possible
• Writing short sentences
• Use punctuation to assist the reader
• Write short paragraphs
• Use lists where appropriate
• Underlining where appropriate
• Using headings
• Use a multiple decimal numbering system
• Identify sub-sections
• Choose an attractive typeface
• Using white space
• Reducing eye span by presenting message in columns or by increasing margin sizes
• Using colour where relevant
• Choosing appropriate quality paper.
• Providing an attractive cover in longer messages such as reports.
• Setting out the title page well
• Integrating and using graphics effectively in documentation

The following is a graphic depiction to indicate how all of these factors impacts on the communication process: